Chapter 1 Science and Research PDF

CHAPTER 1 SCIENCE AND RESEARCH C H A P TE R OU TL IN E Introduction Stating a Hypothesis or Research Question What Is Resear...

CHAPTER 1 SCIENCE AND RESEARCH C H A P TE R OU TL IN E Introduction Stating a Hypothesis or Research Question What Is Research? Data Analysis and Interpretation Getting Started Internal Validity The Development of Mass Media Research External Validity Media Research and the Scientific Method Presenting Results The Methods of Knowing Research Suppliers and Field Services Characteristics of the Scientific Method Summary Research Procedures Key Terms Two Sectors of Research: Academic Using the Internet and Private Questions and Problems for Further Research Procedures Investigation Determining Topic Relevance References and Suggested Readings 1 Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  2 Part One The Research Process INTRODUCTION and our revised definition of mass media is therefore any communication channel used When hearing the words mass media to simultaneously reach a large number of research for the first time, many people ask people, including radio, TV, newspapers, two questions: (1) What are the mass media? magazines, billboards, films, recordings, and (2) What types of things do mass media books, the Internet, and smart media. researchers investigate? Let’s address these What types of things do mass media re- questions before getting to the specifics of searchers investigate? Here are a few examples: research. What are the mass media? In order to Which format should a radio station answer this question, we must first back up adopt? and define mass communication, which is Which songs should a radio station play? any form of communication transmitted What type of hosts do listeners want through a medium (channel) that simulta- on a radio station’s morning show? neously reaches a large number of people. Mass media are the channels that carry mass How do viewers evaluate a pilot for a communication. However, categorizing what new TV show? a mass medium is has become complicated What do viewers like most and like during the past several years. Our previous least about their favorite local TV news definition of the mass media has been any com- program? munication channel used to simultaneously How effective is advertising on TV, radio, reach a large number of people, including the Internet, and in all types of print? radio, TV, newspapers, magazines, billboards, Which ads do readers see most often in films, recordings, books, and the Internet. their local newspaper? Our traditional definition of mass media is no longer applicable to the new high-tech How many people regularly read communication channels, and we now add a newspapers? new category to the list. We call the new How are cell phones affecting people’s category smart mass media, which include use of the other mass media? smartphones, smart TVs, and tablets—three Who should be the spokesperson for a media that are essentially computers. As new consumer product? stand-alone devices, each of these media Who should be the host of a new TV can function as an individual mass medium. game show? For example, using these smart media, one person or one organization can now commu- Are there more violent acts on TV now nicate simultaneously with hundreds of than five years ago? thousands or even millions of people via What are the characteristics of success- tweets, text messages, social media posts, ful websites? and email. However, smart media can access Is there a way to predict the success of the Internet and additionally serve the func- a smartphone app before it is released? tion of all other mass media. For example, a How many employees read their com- person can watch TV and movies; listen to pany’s internal newspaper or newsletter? radio and recordings; or read a magazine, book, or newspaper, all using a smart What kinds of people watch TV online? media device. In short, smart media represent Why do some people prefer Internet radio yet another form of mass communication, stations to broadcast radio stations? Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Chapter 1 Science and Research 3 The types of questions investigated in already working for, companies and busi- mass media research are virtually unlimited. nesses that use research, or that you are sim- However, even this short list demonstrates ply interested in finding out more about the why it’s necessary to understand mass field. With these ideas in mind, our approach media research—because literally every area is to explain what research is all about—to of the mass media uses research, and anyone show you how to use it to discover some- who works in the media (or plans to) will be thing. We also hope our discussions will exposed to or will be involved in research. make your life easier when a research report Our goal in this book is to introduce you is put on your desk for you to read or when to mass media research and dispel many you face a question that needs to be of the negative thoughts people may have answered. about research, especially a fear of having Now, back to the idea that all of us are to use math and statistics. You will find researchers and conduct research every day, that you do not have to be a math or statis- remember that we define research as an tics wizard. The only thing you need is an attempt to discover something. Every day we inquiring mind. all conduct numerous “research projects.” We’re not being facetious here. Just consider the number of things you must analyze, test, or WHAT IS RESEARCH? evaluate, to perform daily tasks: Regardless of how the word research is used, 1. Set the water temperature in the it essentially means one thing: an attempt to shower so you do not freeze or burn. discover something. We all do this every day. 2. Decide which clothes to put on This book discusses many of the different that are appropriate for the day’s approaches used to discover something in activities. the mass media. 3. Select something to eat for breakfast Research can be very informal, with only that will stay with you until a few (or no) specific plans or steps, or it can lunchtime. be formal, where a researcher follows highly defined and exacting procedures. The lack of 4. Decide when to leave the house to exacting procedures in informal research reach your destination on time. does not mean the approach is incorrect, 5. Figure out the easiest way to accom- and the use of exacting procedures does not plish a task. guarantee that formal research is correct. 6. Decide when to move to the side of Both procedures can be good or bad—it the road if you hear an emergency depends on how the research is conducted. siren. The important thing for all researchers to 7. Determine how loudly to talk to understand is the correct methods to follow someone. to ensure the best results. Most people who conduct research are 8. Estimate how fast you need to walk not paid for their efforts. Although the to get across the street so you won’t research industry is an excellent field to be hit. enter, our approach in this book is to assume 9. Evaluate the best way to tell a friend that most readers will not become (or are about a problem you have. not now) paid professional researchers. We 10. Determine when it’s time to go assume that most of you will work for, or are home. Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  4 Part One The Research Process The list may seem mundane and boring, chapter contains discussions of the develop- but the fact is that when we make any of ment of mass media research during the past these decisions, we have to conduct a count- several decades and the methods used to col- less number of tests or rely on information lect and analyze information. It also includes from previous tests. We all make many a discussion of the scientific method of attempts to discover things to reach a deci- research. The purpose of this chapter is to sion about any event. In essence, we are all provide a foundation for the topics discussed researchers from a very young age. in detail in later chapters. The simplicity of research begs the ques- Two basic questions a beginning researcher tion: Why read this book? The reason is that must learn to answer are (1) how to use there are good ways to attempt to discover research methods and statistical procedures something and there are not-so-good ways to and (2) when to use research methods and attempt to discover something. This book statistical procedures. Although developing discusses both the good and the bad so that methods and procedures is a valuable task, you will be able to distinguish between the the focus for most researchers should be on two. Even if you do not plan to become a applications. professional researcher, it is important to This book supports the tasks and res- learn the best way to collect information ponsibilities of the applied data analyst and analyze it because research results are (researcher), not the statistician; it does not so widely used in all areas of life. concentrate on the role of the statistician The underlying theme presented in this because the “real world” of mass media book highlights the Three-Step Philosophy research usually does not require an exten- of Success followed by the senior author of sive knowledge of statistics. Instead, the real this book for the past 35þ years as a paid world requires an understanding of what professional researcher. There are three basic the statistics produce, how to interpret steps to success in business and, for that results, and how to use the results in decision matter, almost every facet of life: making. After conducting thousands of mass media research studies for many years, 1. Find out what the target audience we have concluded that those who wish wants (one or more customers, to become mass media researchers should friends, family, colleagues, etc.). spend time learning what to do with the 2. Give it to them. research methods, not how they work. 3. Tell them that you gave it to them. Both statisticians and researchers are involved in producing research results, but Failure is virtually impossible if you their functions are quite different, even follow this three-step philosophy. How can though one person may sometimes serve in you fail when you give people what they both capacities. What do statisticians do? ask for? The way to find out what people Among other complex activities, they gener- want is through research, and that is what ate statistical procedures, or formulas, called this book is all about. algorithms. Researchers use these algorithms to investigate research questions and hypoth- GETTING STARTED eses. The results of this cooperative effort are Keep in mind that the focus of this book is to used to advance our understanding of the discuss attempts to discover something in the mass media. mass media. Although it would be valuable For example, users of radio and television to address other fields of endeavor, this ratings, produced by Arbitron and A. C. Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Chapter 1 Science and Research 5 A CLOSER LOOK Searching the Internet Throughout this book, we suggest a variety of your search, type the search exactly as shown, Internet searches to help you find more informa- including the quote marks, because the search tion about specific topics. The searches we sug- looks for those words in that specific order. For gest often include quote marks, such as “mass more information about Internet searching, go media research” examples. When you conduct to www.wimmerdominick.com. Nielsen, continually analyze the instability of additional objective information to evaluate ratings information. The audience infor- problems, especially when they make deci- mation (ratings and shares) for radio and tele- sions that involve large sums of money. The vision stations in a given market sometimes past 50 years have witnessed the evolution of vary dramatically from one survey period to a decision-making approach that combines the next without any logical explanation (see research and intuition to produce a higher Chapter 14). Users of media ratings fre- probability of success. quently ask statisticians and the ratings com- Research is not limited only to decision- panies to help determine why this problem making situations. It is also widely used in occurs and to offer suggestions for making theoretical areas to attempt to describe the syndicated media audience information more media, to analyze media effects on consu- reliable, a demonstration of how statisticians mers, to understand audience behavior, and and researchers can work together. so on. Every day there are references in the During the early part of the twentieth media to audience surveys, public opinion century, there was no interest in the size of polls, growth projections, status reports of a media audience or in the types of people one medium or another, or advertising or who make up the audience. Since then, public relations campaigns. As philosopher mass media operators have come to rely on Suzanne Langer (1967) said, “Most new dis- research results for nearly every major deci- coveries are suddenly-seen things that were sion they make. The increased demand for always there.” Mass media researchers have information has created a need for more a great deal to see, and virtually everyone is researchers, both public and private. In addi- exposed to this information every day. tion, within the research field are many spe- Finally, there are two additional points cializations. Research directors plan and before we get into media research. First, supervise studies and act as liaisons to man- media research and the need for qualified agement, methodological specialists provide researchers will continue to grow, but it is statistical support, research analysts design difficult to find qualified researchers who and interpret studies, and computer specia- can work in the public and private sectors. lists provide hardware and software support Second, we urge you to search the Internet in data analysis. for additional information on every topic dis- Research in mass media is used to verify cussed in this book. We have identified some or refute opinions or intuitions for decision areas for further investigation, but do not makers. Although common sense is some- limit your searching to only our suggestions. times accurate, media decision makers need Internet searches are not good for primary Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  6 Part One The Research Process research, but they are useful as a starting does the new medium provide? What other point for information gathering. types of information and entertainment does the new medium replace? Were original pro- jections about the use of the medium correct? THE DEVELOPMENT OF MASS What uses are evident other than those that MEDIA RESEARCH were predicted from initial research? Mass media research has evolved in defin- Phase 3 includes investigations of the able steps, and similar patterns have been social, psychological, and physical effects of followed in each medium’s needs for research the medium. How much time do people (see Figure 1.1). As you read the following spend with the medium? Does it change peo- paragraphs about the development of mass ple’s perspectives about anything? What do media research, consider the smart media the users of the medium want and expect to (the newest mass media) as examples. In hear or see? Are there any harmful effects Phase 1 of the research, there is an interest related to using the medium? In what way, in the medium itself. What is it? How does it if any, does the medium help people? Can the work? What technology does it involve? medium be combined with other media or How is it similar to or different from what technology to make it even more useful? is already available? What functions or ser- In Phase 4, research is conducted to deter- vices does it provide? Who will have access mine how the medium can be improved, to the new medium? How much will it cost? either in its use or through technological Phase 2 research begins once the medium developments. Can the medium provide is developed. In this phase, specific informa- information or entertainment to more types tion is accumulated about the uses and the of people? How can new technology be used users of the medium. How do people use the to perfect or enhance the sight and/or sound medium in real life? Do they use it for infor- of the medium? Is there a way to change the mation only, to save time, for entertainment, content to be more valuable or entertaining? or for some other reason? Do children use it? The design of Figure 1.1 is not intended Do adults use it? Why? What gratifications to suggest that the research phases are Figure 1.1 Research Phases in Mass Media PHASE 1 The medium itself PHASE 4 PHASE 2 How the medium Uses and users of can be improved the medium PHASE 3 Effects of the medium Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Chapter 1 Science and Research 7 linear—that when a phase is over, it is never messages at an audience and those messages considered again. In reality, once a medium would produce preplanned and almost is developed and established, research may universal effects. The belief then was that all be conducted simultaneously in all four people behave in similar ways when they phases. For example, although television encounter media messages. We know now has been around for decades, researchers that individual differences among people continue to investigate the medium itself (sat- rule out this overly simplistic view. As ellite or online-delivered digital audio and DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach (1989) note: video), the uses of TV (pay-per-view pro- These assumptions may not have been gramming, TV on computers and handheld explicitly formulated at the time, but they devices), effects (violent programming), and were drawn from fairly elaborate theories improvements (3DTV). of human nature, as well as the nature of Research is a never-ending process. In the social order…. It was these theories that most instances, a research project designed guided the thinking of those who saw the to answer one series of questions produces media as powerful. a new set of questions no one thought of before. This failure to reach closure may be A second contributor to the development troublesome to some people, but it is the of mass media research was the realization essential nature of research. by advertisers in the 1950s and 1960s that Figure 1.1 depicts four phases of research data are useful in developing ways research. However, in some instances, as in to persuade potential customers to buy pro- private sector research, an additional element ducts and services. Consequently, advertisers permeates every phase: How can the medium encouraged studies of message effectiveness, make money? The largest percentage of audience demographics and size, placement research conducted in the private sector of advertising to achieve the highest level of relates in some way to money—how to save exposure (efficiency), frequency of advertis- it, make more of it, or take it away from ing necessary to persuade potential custo- others. This may not “sit well” with people mers, and selection of the medium that who view the media as products of artistic offered the best chance of reaching the target endeavor, but this is how the real world audience. operates. A third contributing social force was the At least four major events or social forces increasing interest of citizens in the effects of encouraged the growth of mass media the media on the public, especially on research. The first was World War I, which children. The direct result was an interest prompted a need to understand the nature of in research related to violence and sexual propaganda. Researchers working from a content in television programs and in com- stimulus–response point of view attempted mercials aired during children’s programs. to uncover the effects of the media on people Researchers have expanded their focus to (Lasswell, 1927). The media at that time include the positive (prosocial) as well as were thought to exert a powerful influence the negative (antisocial) effects of television. over their audiences, and several assump- Investigating violence on television is still an tions were made about what the media important endeavor, and new research is could and could not do. One theory of mass published every year. media, later named the hypodermic needle Increased competition among the media model of communication, suggested that for advertising dollars was a fourth contrib- mass communicators need only “shoot” utor to the growth of research. Most media Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  8 Part One The Research Process managers are now sophisticated and use think, how they use language, how they long-range plans, management by objectives, spend their spare time, and so on. Informa- and an increasing dependency on data to tion on these ideas and behaviors is then used support the decisions they make. Even in the merchandising effort to make the program producers seek relevant research medium seem to be part of the audience. data, a task usually assigned to the creative Positioning thus involves taking information side of program development. In addition, from the audience and interpreting the data the mass media now focus on audience frag- to use in marketing the medium. For more mentation, which means that the mass of information about positioning companies people is divided into small groups, or niches and products in the business and consumer (technically referred to as the “demassifica- worlds, search the Internet for corporate tion” of the mass media). Researchers need imaging, corporate positioning, and product information about these smaller groups of branding. people. Much of the media research before the The competition among the media for early 1960s originated in psychology and audiences and advertising dollars continues sociology departments at colleges and uni- to reach new levels of complexity. The versities. Researchers with backgrounds in media “survival kit” today includes informa- the media were rare because the mass tion about consumers’ changing values and media were young, but this situation chan- tastes, shifts in demographic patterns, and ged. Media departments in colleges and uni- developing trends in lifestyles. Audience frag- versities grew rapidly in the 1960s and mentation increases the need for trend stud- 1970s, and media researchers entered the ies (fads, new behavior patterns), image scene. Today mass media researchers domi- studies (people’s perceptions of the media nate the mass media research field, and now and their environment), and segmentation the trend is to encourage cross-disciplinary studies (explanations of behavior by types studies in which media researchers invite par- or groups of people). Large research organi- ticipation from researchers in sociology, psy- zations, consultants, and media owners and chology, political science, and others. operators conduct research that was previ- Because of the pervasiveness of the mass ously considered the sole property of the media, researchers from all areas of science marketing, psychology, and sociology disci- are now actively involved in attempting to plines. With the advent of increased compe- answer media-related questions. tition and audience fragmentation, media Modern mass media research includes a managers more frequently use marketing variety of psychological and sociological strategies in an attempt to discover their investigations, such as physiological and position in the marketplace. When this posi- emotional responses to television programs, tion is identified, the medium is packaged as commercials, or music played on radio sta- an image rather than a product. Similarly, tions. In addition, computer modeling and the producers of consumer goods such as other sophisticated computer analyses are soap and toothpaste try to sell the image of now commonplace in media research to these products because the products them- determine such things as the potential success selves are similar, if not the same, from com- of television programs (local, network, or pany to company. syndicated). Once considered eccentric by The packaging strategy involves deter- some, mass media research is now a legiti- mining what the members of the audience mate and esteemed field. Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Chapter 1 Science and Research 9 MEDIA RESEARCH AND THE a century ago by C. S. Peirce, discuss four SCIENTIFIC METHOD approaches to finding answers, or methods of knowing: tenacity, intuition, authority, and Scientific research is an organized, objective, science. To this list, we add self-discovery. controlled, qualitative or quantitative empir- A user of the method of tenacity follows ical analysis of one or more variables. The the logic that something is true because it has terms that define the scientific research always been true. An example is the store- method describe a procedure that has been owner who says, “I don’t advertise because accepted for centuries. In the sixteenth cen- my parents did not believe in advertising.” tury, for example, Tycho Brahe (pronounced The idea is that nothing changes—what TEE-koh BRAH-hee) conducted years of was good, bad, or successful before will con- organized and controlled observation to tinue to be so in the future. refute many of Aristotle’s theories of the In the method of intuition, or the a priori solar system and the universe. approach, a person assumes that something As mentioned earlier, we all conduct is true because it is “self-evident” or “stands research every day. We do this whenever to reason.” Some creative people in advertis- we test a question about anything. Children ing agencies resist efforts to test their adver- conduct “research studies” to determine tising methods because they believe they which items are hot and which are cold, know what will attract customers. To these how to ride a bicycle or a skateboard, and people, scientific research is a waste of time, which persuasive methods work best with and their advertising effectiveness usually parents. Teenagers “test” ideas about driv- suffers as a consequence. ing, dating, and working; adults “test” The method of authority promotes a ideas about family, finance, and survival. belief in something because a trusted source, All research, whether formal or informal, such as a parent, a news correspondent, or a begins with a basic question or proposition teacher, says it is true. The emphasis is on the about a specific phenomenon. For example, source, not on the methods the source may why do viewers select one television program have used to gain the information. For exam- over another? Which sections of the newspaper ple, the claim that “consumers will spend do people read most often? Which types of money to receive news updates via fax magazine covers attract the most readers? machine because producers of the informa- What type of radio format will attract the larg- tion say so” is based on the method of est number of listeners? Which websites attract authority. During the late 1990s, this was the most visitors? Which types of advertising shown not to be true. Only a handful of con- are most effective in communicating messages sumers signed up to receive the new product, to consumers? These questions can be answered and research was conducted to find out what to some degree with well-designed research failed. The research indicated that very few studies. However, the task is to determine people had fax machines at home, and they which data collection method can most appro- were not interested in the material being sent priately provide answers to specific questions. to their workplace—a simple answer that wasn’t perceived by the product’s producers. THE METHODS OF KNOWING The self-discovery method refers to things There are several possible approaches to we learn and know without intervention answering research questions. Kerlinger and from an outside source. While we may use Lee (2000), using definitions provided nearly information gathered from other sources to Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  10 Part One The Research Process provide an answer to a question or problem, of scientific progress in a particular area is self-discovery is evident when a person limited by the efficiency and fidelity with synthesizes a variety of information to come which scientists can communicate their to a decision about something, or maybe results to one another. even to invent a new product or service. Self-discovery involves using one or more of Researchers, therefore, must take great the other methods of knowing, but the differ- care in their published reports to include ence is that the discovery was made alone. information on sampling methods, measure- In essence, the method of self-discovery is ments, and data-gathering procedures. Such similar to the scientific method, without the information allows other researchers to inde- characteristic of being public, and it may be pendently verify a given study and support considered a subset of the method of author- or refute the initial research findings. This ity, where a person becomes his or her own process of replication allows for correction authority based on knowledge gained from and verification of previous research find- personal experience. ings. Though not related to media research, The scientific method approaches learn- the importance of replication in scientific ing as a series of small steps, and unlike the research was highlighted in two areas, one other methods of knowing, it has several where physicists were unable to duplicate definable characteristics. These are discussed the fantastic claim made by two University in the next section. of Utah chemists who said they had produced fusion at room temperature, and the second involving the discrediting of CHARACTERISTICS OF THE research in 2009 about the link between SCIENTIFIC METHOD autism and vaccinations by British physician Six basic characteristics, or tenets, dis- Dr. Andrew Wakefield. (See “Writing a tinguish the scientific method from other Research Report” in the Readings section methods of knowing. A research approach on www.wimmerdominick.com.) that does not follow each of these tenets is Researchers need to save their descrip- not a scientific approach. tions of observations (data) and their research materials so that information not 1. Scientific research is public. Advances included in a formal report is available to in science require freely available informa- other researchers on request. Nunnally and tion. Researchers (especially in the academic Bernstein (1994) say, “A key principle of sci- sector) cannot plead private knowledge, ence is that any statement of fact made by methods, or data in arguing for the accuracy one scientist should be independently verifi- of their findings; scientific research informa- able by other scientists.” Researchers can tion must be freely communicated from one verify results only if they have access to the researcher to another. As Nunnally and original data. It is common practice to keep Bernstein (1994) note: all raw research materials for at least five Science is a highly public enterprise in years, and in many cases, the materials are which efficient communication among kept forever. The materials are usually pro- scientists is essential. Each scientist builds vided free as a courtesy to other researchers, on what has been learned in the past; day- or for a nominal fee if copying or additional by-day his or her findings must be com- materials are required. pared with those of other scientists working 2. Science is objective. Science tries to rule on the same types of problems…. The rate out eccentricities of judgment by researchers. Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Chapter 1 Science and Research 11 When a study is conducted, explicit rules and of subscribers is “God’s will” because such a procedures are developed and the researcher statement cannot be perceived, classified, or is bound to follow them, letting the chips fall measured. (People whose areas of research where they may. Rules for classifying behav- rely on superstition and other nonscientific ior are used so that two or more independent methods of knowing, such as astrology, are observers can classify behavior patterns or said to practice “bad science.”) This does not other elements in the same manner. For mean that scientists avoid abstract ideas and example, to measure the appeal of a televi- notions; they encounter them every day. sion commercial, researchers might count the However, they recognize that concepts must number of times a viewer changes channels be strictly defined to allow for objective during a commercial. This is an objective observation and measurement. Scientists measure because any competent observer must link abstract concepts to the empirical would report a channel change. On the world through observations, which may be other hand, to measure appeal by observing made either directly or indirectly via various how many viewers make negative facial measurement instruments. Typically, this expressions during a commercial would be linkage is accomplished by framing an a subjective approach because different operational definition. observers may have different ideas of what Operational definitions are important in constitutes a negative expression. An explicit science, and a brief introduction requires operational definition of “negative facial some backtracking. There are two basic expression” would reduce or eliminate kinds of definitions. A constitutive definition potential coding errors. defines a word by substituting other words Objectivity also requires that scientific or concepts for it. For example, here is a research deal with facts rather than interpre- constitutive definition of the concept tations of facts. Science rejects its own “artichoke”: An artichoke is a green leafy authorities if statements conflict with direct vegetable, a tall composite herb of the observation. As the noted psychologist B. F. Cynara scolymus family. In contrast, an Skinner (1953) wrote, “Research projects do operational definition specifies procedures not always come out as one expects, but the that allow one to experience or measure a facts must stand and the expectations fall. concept. For example: Go to the grocery The subject matter, not the scientist, knows store and find the produce aisle; look for a best.” Mass media researchers have often sign that says “Artichokes”; what’s under- encountered situations where media decision neath the sign is an artichoke. Although an makers reject the results of a research project operational definition assures precision, it because the study did not produce the antici- does not guarantee validity; a stock clerk pated results. (In these cases, we wonder why may mistakenly stack lettuce under the the research was conducted.) artichoke sign. This possibility for error 3. Science is empirical. Researchers are underscores the importance of considering concerned with a world that is knowable and both the constitutive definition and the oper- potentially measurable. (Empiricism comes ational definition of a concept to evaluate the from the Greek word for “experience.”) trustworthiness of any measurement. Care- Researchers must be able to perceive and clas- fully examining the constitutive definition sify what they study and reject metaphysical of artichoke indicates that the operational and nonsensical explanations of events. For definition might be faulty. example, scientists would reject a newspaper Operational definitions can help dispel publisher’s claim that a decline in the number some of the strange questions raised in Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  12 Part One The Research Process philosophical discussions. For instance, if consistency in behavior, situations, and you have taken a philosophy course, you phenomena. may have encountered the question, “How 5. Science is predictive. Science is con- many angels can stand on the head of a cerned with relating the present to the future. pin?” The debate ends quickly when the In fact, scientists strive to develop theories retort is, “Give me an operational definition because, among other reasons, they are of an angel, and I’ll give you the answer.” useful in predicting behavior. A theory’s ade- Any question can be answered as long as quacy lies in its ability to predict a phenome- there are operational definitions for the inde- non or event successfully. A theory that pendent or dependent variables. For further offers predictions that are not borne out by discussions of operational definitions, see data analysis must be carefully reexamined Psychometric Theory (Nunnally & Bernstein, and perhaps discarded. Conversely, a theory 1994) and The Practice of Social Research that generates predictions that are supported (Babbie, 2010), and search the Internet for by the data can be used to make predictions “operational definition.” in other situations. 4. Science is systematic and cumulative. 6. Science is self-correcting. As mentioned No single research study stands alone, nor earlier, the scientific method approaches does it rise or fall by itself. Astute researchers learning in a series of small steps. That is, always use previous studies as building one study or one source provides only an blocks for their own work. One of the first indication of what may or may not be true; steps in conducting research is to review the the “truth” is found only through a series of available scientific literature on the topic so objective analyses. This means that the scien- that the current study will draw on the heri- tific method is self-correcting in that changes tage of past research. This review is valuable in thoughts, theories, or laws are appropriate for identifying problem areas and important when errors in previous research are uncov- factors that might be relevant to the current ered. A non-media example is when in 1984 study. (Please read Timothy Ferris’s preface Barry Marshall, a medical resident in Perth, in The Whole Shebang, 1998.) Australia, identified a bacterium (Helicobac- In addition, scientists attempt to search ter pylori) as the cause of stomach ulcers (not for order and consistency among their an increase in stomach acid due to stress or findings. In its ideal form, scientific research anxiety). After several years, hundreds of begins with a single carefully observed event independent studies proved that Marshall and progresses ultimately to the formulation was correct, and in 1996 the U.S. Food and of theories and laws. A theory is a set of Drug Administration (FDA) approved a related propositions that presents a system- combination of drugs to fight ulcers—an ant- atic view of phenomena by specifying acid and an antibiotic. relationships among concepts. Researchers Another example of how the scientific develop theories by searching for patterns method is self-correcting was the preliminary of uniformity to explain their data. When finding in late 2011 that neutrinos travel faster relationships among variables are invariant than the speed of light. However, in early under given conditions, researchers may for- 2012 the initial results were found to have mulate a law. A law is a statement of fact been created by a loose cable (measurement meant to explain, in concise terms, an action error), and further analysis verified that neutri- or set of actions that is generally accepted to nos do not travel faster than the speed of light. be true and universal. Both theories and laws In communications, researchers discovered help researchers search for and explain that the early ideas of the power of the media Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Chapter 1 Science and Research 13 A CLOSER LOOK Scientific Research Although the Internet is a valuable information by conducting a search for urban legends. source, it is also a source for misunderstanding, Why do you think these legends are so incorrect information, and perpetuation of popular? In which method of knowing do falsehoods and urban legends. Look at some these urban legends belong? of the information passed along on the Internet (the hypodermic needle theory) were incorrect cake may be ruined by an oven that doesn’t and after numerous studies concluded that work properly, spoiled ingredients, altitude, behavior and ideas are changed by a combina- or numerous other variables. The typical tion of communication sources and that peo- research process consists of these eight steps: ple react differently to the same message. Isaac 1. Select a problem. Asimov (1990) said, “One of the glories of scientific endeavor is that any scientific belief, 2. Review existing research and theory however firmly established, is constantly being (when relevant). tested to see if it is truly universally valid.” 3. Develop hypotheses or research However, the scientific method may be inap- questions. propriate in many areas of life—for instance, 4. Determine an appropriate method- in evaluating works of art, choosing a religion, ology/research design. or forming friendships—but it has been valu- 5. Collect relevant data. able in producing accurate and useful data in mass media research. The next section pro- 6. Analyze and interpret the results. vides a more detailed look at this method of 7. Present the results in an appropriate knowing. form. 8. Replicate the study (when necessary). RESEARCH PROCEDURES Step 4 includes deciding whether to use The purpose of the scientific method of qualitative research, such as focus groups or research is to provide an objective, unbiased one-on-one interviews that usually use small collection and evaluation of data. To inves- samples, or quantitative research, such as tigate research questions and hypotheses telephone interviews, where large samples systematically, both academic and private- are usually used to allow results to be gener- sector researchers follow a basic eight-step alized to the population under study (see procedure. However, simply following the Chapter 5 for a discussion of qualitative eight research steps does not guarantee that research). the research is good, valid, reliable, or useful. Steps 2 and 8 are optional in the private An almost countless number of intervening sector, where some research is conducted to variables (influences) can destroy even the answer a specific and unique question related best-planned research project. The situation to a future decision, such as whether to invest is similar to someone assuming he or she can a large sum of money in a developing bake a cake by just following the recipe. The medium. In this type of project, there Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  14 Part One The Research Process generally is no previous research to consult, Nongovernmental companies or their and there seldom is a reason to replicate the research consultants conduct private-sector study because a decision is made based on