Biomolecules in Zoology - Exploring Biomolecules in Zoology PDF

EXPLORING BIOMOLECULES IN ZOOLOGY ALVIN G. DOMINGO, M.Sc. Faculty Department of Biological Sciences College of Arts and Sciences Significance of Biomolecules in Zoology 1. Foundation of Life – Building Blocks 2. Genetic Diversity – DNA, Evolution 3. Metabolic...

EXPLORING BIOMOLECULES IN ZOOLOGY ALVIN G. DOMINGO, M.Sc. Faculty Department of Biological Sciences College of Arts and Sciences Significance of Biomolecules in Zoology 1. Foundation of Life – Building Blocks 2. Genetic Diversity – DNA, Evolution 3. Metabolic Processes – Enzymes, Energy 4. Adaptation And Evolution – Environment, Evolution 5. Health Insights – Disease Health 6. Conservation Clues – Species, Conservation  LEARNING 1 OBJECTIVES Understand Biomolecule Types 2 Explore Biomolecule Functions 3 Comprehend Biomolecule Structures 4 Recognize its Significance in Zoology CARBOHYDRATES CARBOHYDRATES The most common organic molecule FUNCTION: Primary energy source our body needs ELEMENTS: C, H, O (1:2:1 ratio) Monomer (building block) - GLUCOSE is the most common POLYMER: Polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin) LIPIDS LIPIDS FUNCTION: Store energy, Insulates your body, and make up the cell membrane ELEMENTS: C-H-O Monomer (building block) - GLYCEROL and 3 FATTY ACIDS POLYMER: Phospholipids, Triglycerides PROTEINS PROTEINS FUNCTION: - transport molecules in and out of the cell - control the speed of chemical reactions - used for growth and repair Proteins make up the structure of living things… Hair, nails, skin, bones, muscle, etc. are all built by protein! PROTEINS ELEMENTS: C-H-O-N-S Monomer (building block) - amino acids (20 diff structures) POLYMER: polypeptides OTHER EXAMPLES: - enzymes, hemoglobin, albumin, antibodies NUCLEIC ACIDS NUCLEIC ACIDS FUNCTION: - provide our genetic information - holds the instructions to make proteins ELEMENTS: C-H-O-N-P Monomer: nucleotides - nucleotide is made up of: -sugar - phosphate -nitrogen base: A, T, G, C, NUCLEIC ACIDS POLYMER: - DNA and RNA Protein Genetic Code Synthesis TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATES Simple carbohydrates are the basic type of carbs Simple carbohydrates also are found in natural sugars There is only one sugar unit in the monosaccharides, so they are the smallest of the carbohydrates. COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES Complex carbohydrates represent an important energy source for your body. Complex carbohydrates are often single units (monosaccharides), which are bound together. The oligosaccharides contain two to ten simple units of sugar. Monosaccharides Monosaccharide carbohydrates are those carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolyzed further to give simpler units of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone. If a monosaccharide contains an aldehyde group then it is called aldose and on the other hand, if it contains a keto group then it is called a ketose. Structure- GLUCOSE From Sucrose: If sucrose is boiled with dilute acid in an alcoholic solution then we obtain glucose and fructose. From Starch: We can obtain glucose by hydrolysis of starch and by boiling it with dilute H2SO4 at 393K under elevated pressure. Structure- FRUCTOSE It is an important ketohexose. The molecular formula of fructose is C6H12O6 and contains a ketonic functional group at carbon number 2 and has six carbon atoms in a straight chain. Disaccharide On hydrolysis, disaccharides yield two molecules of either the same or different monosaccharides. The two monosaccharide units are joined by oxide linkage which is formed by the loss of water molecule and this linkage is called glycosidic linkage. Sucrose is one of the most common disaccharides which on hydrolysis gives glucose and fructose. Maltose and Lactose (also known as milk sugar) are the other two important disaccharides. In maltose, there are two α-D-glucose and in lactose, there are two β-D-glucose which are connected by an oxide bond. Polysaccharides Polysaccharides contain long monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic linkage. Most of them act as food storage for e.g. Starch. Starch is the main storage polysaccharide for plants. It is a polymer of α glucose and consists of two components-Amylose and Amylopectin. Cellulose is also one of the polysaccharides that are mostly found in plants. It is composed of β-D- glucose units joined by a glycosidic linkage between C1 of one glucose unit and C4 of the next glucose unit. GLYCOGEN It is the principal form in which carbohydrate is stored in higher animals, occurring primarily in the liver and muscles. It also is found in various species of microorganisms—e.g., bacteria and fungi, including yeasts. QUESTIONS? What are carbohydrates? What are the major functions of carbohydrates? What is a simple carbohydrate? What is a complex carbohydrate? What is the difference between complex and simple carbohydrates? What are some examples of simple carbohydrates? LIPIDS PROPERTIES OF LIPIDS 1. Lipids are oily or greasy nonpolar molecules, stored in the adipose tissue of the body. 2. Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds, mainly composed of hydrocarbon chains. 3. Lipids are energy-rich organic molecules, which provide energy for different life processes. 4. Lipids are a class of compounds characterized by their solubility in nonpolar solvents and insolubility in water. 5. Lipids are significant in biological systems as they form a mechanical barrier dividing a cell from the external environment known as the cell membrane.  CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS Nonsaponifiable Saponifiable -cannot be disintegrated into smaller - comprises one or more ester molecules through hydrolysis groups, enabling it to undergo hydrolysis - bile salts, cholesterol, and related compounds, and certain hormones -divided into non-polar and polar (such as cortisone and the sex lipids. hormones) e.g. Comprise of: - Triglycerides - Sphingolipids - Fatty acids - glycerophospholi pids Types of Lipids 1. Simple Lipids Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols. a. Fats: Esters of fatty acids with glycerol. Oils are fats in the liquid state b. Waxes: Esters of fatty acids with higher molecular weight monohydric alcohols  Types of Lipids 1. Complex Lipids Esters of fatty acids containing groups in addition to alcohol and fatty acid. a. Phospholipids: These are lipids containing, in addition to fatty acids and alcohol, phosphate group. They frequently have nitrogen-containing bases and other substituents. b. Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids): Lipids containing fatty acid, sphingosine, and carbohydrate. c. Other complex lipids: Lipids such as sulfolipids and amino lipids. Lipoproteins may also be placed in this category.  Precursor and Derived Lipids Lipids encompass a variety of compounds, including: - Fatty acids - Glycerol - Steroids - Other alcohols - Fatty aldehydes - Ketone bodies - Hydrocarbons - Lipid-soluble vitamins - Hormones Some lipid compounds, like acylglycerols (glycerides), cholesterol, and cholesteryl esters, are called neutral lipids because they are uncharged. These compounds are typically formed through the hydrolysis (breakdown) of both simple and complex lipids. Fatty Acids Fatty acids are carboxylic acids (or organic acid), usually with long aliphatic tails (long chains), either unsaturated or saturated. a. Saturated FA Lack of carbon-carbon double bonds indicates saturation. Saturated fatty acids have higher melting points. Their ability to pack molecules together results in a straight rod-like shape. Fatty Acids b. Unsaturated FA Indicated by the presence of more than one double bond. Naturally occurring fatty acids typically have an even number of carbon atoms and are unbranched. Contain cis-double bond(s), creating structural kinks that prevent them from forming straight rod-like shapes. Examples of Lipids a. WAXES Waxes are esters formed from long-chain alcohols and long-chain carboxylic acids. Ubiquitous Presence: Waxes are widely found in nature. Many plants have waxy coatings on their fruits and leaves, protecting them from small predators and dehydration. Some animals, like fur-bearing animals and birds, also possess wax coatings that serve as water repellents. Examples of Lipids b. PHOSPHOLIPIDS Membrane Composition: Membranes are mainly made up of phospholipids known as Phosphoacylglycerols. Phospholipid Structure: Phosphoacylglycerols are similar to triacylglycerols but have a phosphate group instead of a third fatty acid, forming phosphatidic acid. Phospholipid Name: "Phospholipid" gets its name because it contains a phosphate group, making it a unique type of lipid. Examples of Lipids c. STEROIDS Hormones: Organic compounds that are synthesized in glands. Transported by the bloodstream. Regulate processes in various tissues. Steroids: Characterized by a distinctive tetracyclic structure. Composed of three fused six-membered rings and one five-membered ring. Labeled as A, B, C, and D in blue, with carbon numbering indicated in red. Function as essential hormones in the body. Examples of Lipids d. CHOLESTEROL - Cholesterol is a wax-like substance found only in animal-derived foods and is present in different forms in the bloodstream. Role in Cell Membranes: Cholesterol is crucial for the structure of cell membranes, providing stability and preventing excessive fluidity. Beyond Membranes: It also serves as the basis for the synthesis of important steroids, including sex hormones and vitamin D. LIPIDS IN BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES Energy Storage - Lipids serve as efficient energy storage molecules. - They store energy in the form of triglycerides, which are broken down to provide a long-term energy source when needed. Cell Membranes - Lipids are crucial components of cell membranes. - Phospholipids create the lipid bilayer, providing a hydrophobic barrier that separates the cell from its surroundings. Hormones - Some lipids, like steroids, function as hormones. - Hormonal lipids regulate various physiological processes, including growth, metabolism, and stress responses. QUESTIONS? What are lipids? How are lipids important to our body? What are the 3 main functions of lipids? What are the classifications of Lipids? PROTEINS Proteins are large molecules. They are composed of basic units known as amino acids. Proteins consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and occasionally, sulfur. These molecules are complex and can have one or more twisted and folded strands of amino acids. Proteins are actively involved in crucial life processes, including metabolism, movement, defense, cellular communication, and molecular recognition. FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS Protein Structure: Atoms in amino acid strands attract each other (positive and negative attractions). These attractions cause the strand to coil repeatedly, forming a complex shape. Folded proteins can combine with other folded proteins to create even larger, more intricate structures. FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS Role of Protein Shape: The shape of a protein determines its function in the body's chemistry. Structural proteins have shapes that help build essential body structures. Example: Collagen holds body tissues together with a fiber-like shape. Example: Keratin forms a waterproof network in the outer skin layer. Functional proteins have shapes that allow them to participate in chemical processes. Examples: Hormones, growth factors, cell membrane receptors, and enzymes are functional proteins. CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS Levels of Protein Structure: Primary Structure (First Level): Protein structure is a sequence of amino acids in a chain. Secondary Structure (Second Level): Protein structure is formed by folding and twisting of the amino acid chain. Tertiary Structure (Third Level): Protein structure is formed when the twists and folds of the secondary structure fold again to create a larger three-dimensional structure. Quaternary Structure (Fourth Level): Protein structure consists of more than one folded amino acid chain. CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS Mixed Protein Molecules: Proteins can bond with other organic compounds, forming "mixed" molecules. Examples include glycoproteins, which have sugars attached and are embedded in cell membranes. Another example is lipoproteins, which are combinations of lipids and proteins. NUCLEIC ACIDS Nucleic acids are long-chain polymeric molecules, and their monomer (the repeating unit) is called nucleotides, which is why they are sometimes referred to as polynucleotides. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the two major types of nucleic acids. DNA and RNA are responsible for inheriting and transmitting specific characteristics from one generation to another. There are two prominently known types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA. DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID DNA comprises a pentose sugar, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen-containing cyclic bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). The sugar in DNA is β-D-2-deoxyribose. The arrangement of these nitrogen bases stores genetic information. DNA forms a double-strand helical structure with complementary strands. RIBONUCLEIC ACIDS RNA consists of phosphoric acid, a pentose sugar, and nitrogen-containing cyclic bases. The sugar moiety in RNA is β-D-ribose. RNA contains four heterocyclic bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U). Unlike DNA, RNA has uracil (U) as its fourth base. RNA typically forms a single-stranded structure, which can sometimes fold back, resulting in a double helix. There are three main types of RNA molecules, each with a specific function: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS Transmission of inherent characteristics from parent to offspring. Synthesis of proteins in the body. Utilized in DNA fingerprinting for paternity determination and criminal identification. Significant role in biological evolution and genetics studies. REFERENCES Carbohydrates https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459280/ https://byjus.com/chemistry/classification-of-carbohydrates-and-its-structure/ Lipids https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525952/#:~:text=Lipids%20are%20fat ty%2C%20waxy%2C%20or,Fats%20and%20oils%20(triglycerides) Proteins https://old.amu.ac.in/emp/studym/100005848.pdf Nucleic acids https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6822018/ https://byjus.com/chemistry  REFERENCES ANIMAL DIVERSITY, FIFTH EDITION Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Published by McGraw-Hill. Previous editions © 2007, 2003, 2000, and 1994. ISBN 978-0-07-128449-3 Zoology: Modern Concepts and Contributions Edited by Mia Steers Chapter 1, Chapter 2 Copyright © 2015 Callisto Reference Published by Callisto Reference 106 Park Avenue, Suite 200, New York, NY 10016, USA Website: www.callistoreference.com ISBN: 978-1-63239-624-2 (Hardback) REFERENCES Miller S.A. and Tupper, T.A. 2019. Zoology. McGraw-Hill. New York. Samberg, E. 2018.Vertebrate Zoology.Syrawood Publishing House. New York, NY Prasad, S.N and Kashyap.2011. A Textbook of Veterbrate Zoology. 14th Ed. New Age Publishers. New Delhi QUESTIONS? QUIZ 1. True or False: Proteins consist of amino acids, carbohydrates, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur. 2. True or False: The folded shape of a protein is determined solely by covalent bonds between amino acids. 3. True or False: Functional proteins, like hormones and enzymes, have shapes that allow them to participate in chemical processes. 4. True or False: Keratin is a structural protein found in the outer layer of the skin, forming waterproof fibers. 5. True or False: Collagen is a protein that primarily holds body tissues together and has a fibrous shape. 6. True or False: Proteins can form larger, more complicated shapes by combining with other folded proteins.  QUIZ 7. True or False: The primary level of protein structure involves the sequence of amino acids in a chain. 8. True or False: The secondary level of protein structure is formed by folding and twisting of the amino acid chain. 9. True or False: Tertiary protein structure is created when the secondary structure folds again to form a three-dimensional shape. 10. True or False: Quaternary protein structure involves proteins consisting of more than one folded amino acid chain. 11. True or False: Glycoproteins are proteins with lipids attached to them. 12. True or False: Lipoproteins are lipid-protein combinations.  QUIZ 13. True or False: Lipids are soluble in water due to their polar nature. 14. True or False: Cholesterol is an example of a nonsaponifiable lipid. 15. True or False: Fats play a role in providing insulation to the body.