Chapter PDF on Human Development

INTRODUCTION Human development is a complex process with social, emotional, cognitive, and physical components. As a result of personal experiences and outside factors, every stage of development presents new opportunities and difficulties. Exploring the interrelated fields of physical and social-emotional development, this chapter emphasizes the life-changing experiences of childhood and adolescence. Intricate facets of creativity, metacognition, ethics, and cognition are also examined; these are essential for moral reasoning, self- awareness, and problem-solving. Considerable attention is paid to the puberty transitional period, which is characterized by considerable changes in one's physical, emotional, and psychological makeup. Problems like identity development, emotional control, and gender role awareness emerge, highlighting the necessity of considerate direction and assistance. Additionally, the chapter discusses the idea of gender. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY The scientific study of how and why people evolve throughout their lives is known as developmental psychology. Adolescence, adult development, aging, and the full lifespan are now included in the field, which was first focused on newborns and children. The goal of developmental psychology is to describe how emotions, thoughts, and behaviours evolve over the course of a person's life. Physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development are the three main characteristics of change that are examined in this subject. Motor skills, executive functions, moral comprehension, language acquisition, social transformation, personality, emotional development, self-concept, and identity formation are just a few of the many issues that fall under these three aspects. Here, we are talking about the physical and socio-emotional changes that people go through as they progress through life. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Physical development is a comprehensive process that involves the growth and maturation of the human body, including changes in height, weight, muscle mass, and overall body structure. It begins at birth and continues through various stages of life, particularly during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, which are marked by rapid growth and significant physical changes. This development includes both the acquisition of gross motor skills and fine motor skills which are essential for daily activities. Physical development is influenced by several factors, including heredity, environment, nutrition, health, and physical activity. Proper nutrition and exercise play a critical role in ensuring healthy growth, while illnesses, injuries, or unfavourable environmental conditions can impede progress. This process is interconnected with other aspects of development, including cognitive, emotional, and social growth. For instance, as children gain motor skills, they explore their surroundings, which aids cognitive development, builds confidence, and enhances social interactions. Educators and caregivers play a vital role in supporting physical development by providing safe environments, opportunities for physical activities, and guidance to foster healthy habits, ensuring well-rounded development of individuals. SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Social-emotional development refers to the process through which individuals learn to understand, express, and regulate their emotions while building meaningful relationships with others. This development begins in infancy and continues throughout life, playing a crucial role in shaping a person’s identity, behaviour, and social interactions. It involves acquiring skills such as recognizing and managing emotions, developing empathy, fostering In early childhood, social-emotional development is reflected in behaviours like forming attachments, sharing, and cooperating with peers. As individuals grow, they learn to navigate complex social situations, resolve conflicts, and adapt to different social roles. Emotional regulation becomes critical during adolescence, as individuals experience heightened emotions and begin to form their own identity. This process is influenced by family, culture, peers, and life experiences, highlighting the interplay between internal traits and external environments. Strong social-emotional skills are essential for overall well-being, helping individuals build resilience, maintain relationships, and thrive in various aspects of life. STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INFANCY (0-2 Years) A person's early years are known as infancy, during which they are a baby. During infancy, babies undergo an incredible amount of growth and development, among many other things, they learn to crawl, laugh, and speak. ▪ PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT-Emerging Capabilities in Infancy 1. REFLEXES AND MOTOR SKILLS Infants are born with specific built-in or prewired abilities that are crucial for survival and adaptive purposes, as they cannot sustain themselves independently. These abilities, known as reflexes and motor skills, enable infants to interact with their environment and develop foundational behaviours. Reflexes Reflexes are automatic, involuntary reactions to external stimuli. They allow infants to respond to their surroundings without prior learning, ensuring survival and aiding adaptation. Examples of Reflexes: Sucking Reflex: Babies automatically suck when presented with a nipple, aiding in feeding. Rooting Reflex: Infants turn their heads in the direction of a touch near their mouth, helping locate food. Grasping Reflex: When a finger is pressed into their hand, babies instinctively close their fingers around it. Startle Reflex (Moro Reflex): Infants extend their arms and legs when startled by loud noises or sudden movements. Motor Skills Motor skills refer to the behavioural abilities that emerge as infants grow physically and neurologically. These skills are categorized into two main types: Gross Motor Skills: Involve large muscle groups and body movements. Examples include rolling over, crawling, standing, and walking. Fine Motor Skills: Involve small muscle groups, such as fingers and hands. Examples include grasping objects, transferring items between hands, and using a pincer grip. 2. REACHING Reaching improves depth perception advances and as infants gain greater control of body posture and arm and hand movements. At about 3 to 4 months, as infants develop the necessary eye, head and shoulder control, reaching reappears as purposeful, forward arm movements in the presence of a nearby toy and gradually results in accuracy. 3. GRASPING Infants will be able to grasp anything that is placed in their palm. Ex-: Place finger in infants’ hand and press against palm, then infant spontaneously grasp finger. Child is born with a grasping reflex from day one. However, child will actually begin to practice grasping with deliberate intention at around three to four months. It also requires the development of hand-eye coordination, and its needs to be stimulated and supported in infancy. A motion in which infant’s fingers close against the palm is called “Ulnar grasp”. Around 4 to 5 months, infants begin to sit up, both hands become coordinated in exploring objects. Babies of this age can hold the object in one hand. With tips of fingers and they frequently transfer objects from one hand to hand. By the end of first year, infants use thumb and index finger in a well-coordinated manner called “Pincer grasp”. Ex-: One year old can pick up raisins and turn knobs and open and close small boxes. 4. CRAWLING Infants generally crawl in between 8 to 10 months. Crawling requires baby to have the strength to push herself up onto her hands and knees, and then maintain balance in that position as she propels herself forwards or backwards. Crawling is important for both motor and cognitive development. With the help of crawling, infants will be also be able to understand the concept of space. 5. MUSCULAR STREGTH When stepping is exercised regularly, infants display more spontaneous stepping movements and gain muscle strength. 6. ROLL OVER Infant should be able to roll over onto his / her stomach between four and six months of age. Rolling over requires the development of basic core strength, and continued practice develops greater strength and coordination to progress to sitting and crawling. 7. SITTING Infants will generally be able to sit up unassisted at six months. Sitting requires core strength and coordination, which is developed earlier through regular tummy time. 8. CRUISING Cruising describes how infants begin to learn how to walk by holding furniture for support. Child develops strength, balance, and coordination by cruising. 9. WALKING At around 13 months, most children will be walking without support. That is, they will be “toddling” as they take their first steps without assistance. 13 months is an average: some children may walk sooner, and some as late as 16 months. SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT-Emerging Capabilities in Infancy 1. Attachment Formation Infants develop emotional bonds with primary caregivers, typically parents, through consistent care and responsiveness. Secure attachment fosters trust, emotional security, and a sense of safety. 2. Emotional Expression Newborn Stage: Express basic emotions such as distress, contentment, and excitement through crying or cooing. 3-6 Months: Begin to show joy (smiling, laughter) and anger or frustration. 6-12 Months: Develop more complex emotions, such as fear (e.g., stranger anxiety) and affection toward familiar people. 3. Recognition of Caregivers Infants learn to recognize familiar faces and voices within weeks of birth. By 6 months, they show a preference for caregivers, often smiling or seeking attention from them 4. Social Interaction Early social behaviours include imitating facial expressions and responding to voices. By 9-12 months, infants engage in simple social games like peek-a-boo and waving “bye-bye.” 5. Emotional Regulation Infants begin to develop the ability to self-soothe, such as sucking their thumb or holding a comfort object. Caregiver interactions play a crucial role in helping infants manage their emotions. 6. Empathy and Social Awareness By the end of infancy, babies may show early signs of empathy, such as becoming distressed when another baby cries. They begin to understand basic social cues and behaviours, such as responding to smiles or gestures. 7. Stranger Anxiety and Separation Anxiety Around 6-9 months, infants may become wary of unfamiliar people (stranger anxiety). They may also experience distress when separated from their primary caregivers (separation anxiety). EARLY CHILDOOD (2-7 YEARS) This is the preschool period. In this stage, the child seeks gain control over his environment. He also starts to learn to make social adjustment. ▪ PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT-Emerging Capabilities in Early childhood 1. MOTOR SKILLS Gross motor skills- Also called for large motor skills, these are the skills that are required to perform general tasks like running, walking, jumping or even balancing their bodies as they engage in these activities. Walk with a steady balance Run comfortably in a single direction or around obstacles Throw a ball or catch one Hop on each foot several times Jump over objects or low-lying hurdles Kick a ball that is stationary Pedal a tricycle Fine motor skills: Also called small motor skills, these involve finer movements and holds necessary to perform tasks that may be slightly complicated. These are also associated with the brain development of the child. Use cutlery Brush teeth or comb hair Pick up small items likes coins Work on simple puzzles Draw simple shapes like circles or squares Stack up blocks 2.TOILET TRAINING Most children are toilet trained by age 5 or 6, in time to begin school. Most kindergartens require that students have mastered toilet training; some preschool settings require it as well. However, at this age, this new skill isn't perfect, and accidents can happen. Bed wetting may still be a common occurrence, because nighttime urine control is the last and hardest task to master. Young boys may take longer than young girls to toilet train, and boys may also have a longer period of night-time accidents. 3.STARTS MANIPULATE Children start to manipulate clothing fasteners, like zippers and snaps and continue to gain independence in dressing and undressing themselves. Before they enter school, most children will gain the ability to completely dress and undress themselves (even though they may take a long time to finish the task). ▪ SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT-Emerging Capabilities in Early childhood 1.EMOTIONAL EXPRESSIVENESS AND UNDERSTANDING Children with high levels of emotional intelligence are skilled in their ability to cope with their own or other people's emotions in a way that creates positive social connections. During early childhood, most children show great gains in each of these developmental skills. As children's abstract thinking and language skills increase, they become better able to label and discuss their emotions with others. Language can also allow children to better regulate their feelings, self-soothe in response to negative feelings, and exert some control over emotion-provoking situations. In addition, as older children develop the ability to take other people's viewpoints, they can start to change or stop their behaviours that might hurt someone else's feelings. 2.IMITATION To identify themselves with the group, children imitate the attitudes and behaviour of a person whom they specially admire and want to be like. 3.DESIRE OF SOCIAL APPROVAL As early childhood draws to a close, peer approval becomes more important than adult approval. Young children find the naughty and disturbing behaviour is a way of winning peer approval. 4. SYMPATHY Because sympathy requires an understanding of the feeling and emotions of others, it appears only occasionally before the third year. The more play contacts the child has, the sooner sympathy will develop. 5.EMPATHY Like empathy requires an understanding of the feeling and emotions of others but, in addition, it requires the ability to imagine oneself in the place of the other person. Relatively few children are able to do this until early childhood ends. 6.COOPERATION By the end of the third year, cooperative play and group activities begin to develop and increase in both frequency and duration as the child's opportunities for play with order children increase. 7.ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOUR Young children, who, as babies, discovered the satisfaction that comes from warm, close, personal associations with orders, gradually attach their affection to people outside the home, such as a nursery school teacher, or to some inanimate object, such as a favourite toy or even a blanket. These then become what are known as attachment objects. 8.SHARING Young children discover, from experiences with others, that one way to win social approval is to share what they have, especially toys, with others. Generosity then gradually replaces selfishness. 9.FRIENDLINESS In early childhood the feeling of friendship develops very fast in children, they do some work together with other children and help other children. In both these situations, friendship behaviour develops in them. 10.SELF ESTEEM By age 3-4, children have developed their Categorical Self, which is concrete way of viewing themselves in "this or that" labels. For example, young children label themselves in terms of age “child or adult", gender "boy or girl", physical characteristics "short or tall", and value, "good or bad." As long-term memory develops, children also gain the Remembered Self. The Remembered Self incorporates memories (and information recounted by adults about personal events) that become part of an individual's life story (sometimes referred to as autobiographical memory). In addition, young children develop an Inner Self, private thoughts, feelings, and desires that nobody else knows about unless a child chooses to share this information. 11.TEMPERAMENT As with emotional development, both internal and external variables can affect young children's self-concept. For example, a child's temperament can affect how they view themselves and their ability to successfully complete tasks. Children with easy temperaments are typically willing to try things repeatedly and are better able to handle frustrations and challenges. In contrast, children with more difficult temperaments may become more easily frustrated and discouraged by challenges or changes in the situation. LATER CHILDHOOD LATER CHILDHOOD (7-11 YEARS) This is the primary school age. Here child is expected to acquire the rudiments of knowledge that are considered essential for successful adjustment to adult life. He/she are also expected to learn certain essential skills. ▪ PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT-Emerging Capabilities in Later childhood 1.MOTOR SKILLS Gross motor- Later Childhood-aged children also refine their control over gross motor skills, learning to master where they hop, skip, throw, and jump. They are able to gain this improved control and coordination due to increases in their flexibility (e.g., their range of movement in joints and muscles), balance and ability (e.g., their ability to change their body's position, which requires a combination of balance, coordination, speed, reflexes, and strength) Kids at this age also learn how to synchronize the movement of their body's various parts, allowing for the development of smoother, more coordinated whole-body movement routines such as are needed for participating in organized sports (e.g., throwing a football, batting a baseball, or dribbling a basketball). Due to their progress with regard to the growth and maturity of motor, cognitive, and social skills, many children will now become capable and competitive participants on sports teams. Fine motor - Later-childhood-aged children show dramatic improvements with regard to their printed handwriting and ability to write in cursive letters. They also develop the ability to draw complex and detailed pictures that for the first time begin to incorporate depth cues and 3D elements. Often, children's artistic ability can truly begin to shine during this stage as improved fine motor skills and imagination combine. During this stage, children also learn how to use their hands to successfully accomplish manual activities other than drawing or writing. For instance, they become capable of executing complex detail-oriented craft projects involving beading, sewing, scrap booking, building models, and good at using simple tools such a hammer or a hand mixer (both under adult supervision, we hope!). Learning to touch type becomes a serious possibility at this time. Children also commonly become quite skilful at playing complicated games involving hand-eye coordination, including video and computer games. 2.BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT Brain and nervous system developments continue during later childhood. More complex behavioural and cognitive abilities become possible as the central nervous system matures. Early in later childhood, a growth spurt occurs in the brain so that by age 8 or 9, the organ is nearly adult-size. Brain development during later childhood is characterized by growth of specific structures, especially the frontal lobes. These lobes, located in the front of the brain just under the skull, are responsible for planning, reasoning, social judgment, and ethical decision making, among other functions. Damage to this part of brain results in erratic emotional outbursts, inability to plan, and poor judgment. The most anterior (front) portion of the frontal lobes is the prefrontal cortex, which appears to be responsible for personality. As the size of the frontal lobes increases, children are able to engage in increasingly difficult cognitive tasks, such as performing a series of tasks in a reasonable order. An example is assembling a mechanical toy: unpacking the pieces, connecting the parts, making the model move by adding a power source a series of tasks that must be completed in the correct order to achieve certain results. Lateralization of the two hemispheres of the brain, also continues during later childhood, as does maturation of the corpus callosum (the bands of neural fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres), and other areas of the nervous system. Interestingly, children achieve concrete operations around age 7 or 8 when the brain and nervous systems have developed a certain number of neural connections. When these neural connections have developed, a child's ability to perceive and think about the world advances from an egocentric, magical viewpoint to a more concrete and systematic way of thinking. ▪ SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT-Emerging Capabilities in Later childhood 1.OVER SENSITIVENESS Hyper sensitivity is one way of gaining social recognition in children. The parents and friend's attention to the highly sensitive children appears more quickly, when parents understand that their child ego get hurt then parents have guilt feeling and they started to over pampered or their child, over sensitiveness is seen in home by the child. 2. SOLVING SOCIAL PROBLEMS Every day children face social problems- acquiring objects, entering interactions, seeking help, initiating friendships. Their ability to suggest solutions to these problems increases in the school years. 3. SOCIAL- HELP SKILLS Skills in this category relate to helping others. At home, they include making beds, dusting, and sweeping; at school, they include emptying wastebaskets and washing chalkboards; and in the play group, they include helping to construct a tree house or lay out a basketball diamond. 4. ROLE OF FAMILY Children's connection to their parents and core family continues to be of tremendous importance for their well-being and functioning. As a rule, children will continue to model the choices, beliefs, and behaviours of the adults or older youth who are present in their family. Children will also continue to derive most of their emotional support, nurturing, and affection from their families. Children derive a sense of pride, and thus an increased sense of self-esteem from making connections between their good choices and positive outcomes. 5.CHANGE ATTITUDES TOWARDS PARENTS From contacts with their friends' parents and as a result of what of what they read in books or see on television or in the movies; children build up concepts of an ideal mother and father. If their own parents fall short of these ideals, as they invariably do, they are likely to become critical of them and compare them unfavourable with the parents of their friends. 6.SELF ESTEEM As children develop a more complex picture of who they are and what they are capable of, they start to compare themselves to other people (e.g., peers, caregivers, siblings, other people in the community) across a wide variety of traits and characteristics such as appearance, intelligence, physical abilities, artistic abilities, etc. Their self-esteem - reflecting their feelings of personal worthiness - also starts to vary across these domains, with the result that children may see themselves as very capable in some areas but not in others. 7.FRIENDSHIP AND PEERS In Later childhood, friendships take on some of the key attribute’s characteristic of adult relationships and start to become something more than simple playtime companionship. Now, friendships come to be based upon mutual regard for another individual's personality, abilities and behaviour. Children grow closer together because they respect the other child's kindness, humour, loyalty, fearlessness, intellect, etc. Mutual trust and willingness to support each other (in word reciprocity") are the hallmarks of these friendships. Most children of this age also begin forming peer groups, which are circles of friends where they spend most of their time playing, talking, and socializing. ADOLESCENCE (12-19 Years) ▪ PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT-Emerging Capabilities in Adolescence 1. PUBERTY Puberty is the period of several years in which rapid physical growth and psychological changes occur, culminating in sexual maturity. The onset of puberty typically occurs at age 10-11 for females and at age 11-12 for males; females usually complete puberty but ages 15- 17, while males usually finish around 16-17. Females tend to attain reproductive maturity about four years after the first physical changes of puberty appear. Males, however, accelerate more slowly but continue to grow for about six years after the first visible pubertal changes. While the sequence of physical changes in puberty is predictable, the onset and pace of puberty vary widely. Every person's individual timetable for puberty is different and is primarily influenced by heredity; however environmental factors such as diet and exercise-also exert some influence. 2. HORMONAL CHANGE Puberty involves distinctive physiological changes in an individual's height, weight, body composition, and circulatory and respiratory systems. During this time, both the adrenal glands and the sex glands mature– processes known as adrenarche and gonadarche, respectively. These changes are largely influenced by hormonal activity. Hormones play an organizational role (priming the body to behave in a certain way once puberty begins) and an activation role (triggering certain behavioural and physical changes). During puberty, the adolescent's hormonal balance shifts strongly towards an adult state; the process is triggered by the pituitary gland, which secretes a surge of hormonal agents into the blood stream and initiates a chain reaction 3.SEXUAL MATURATION It is this stage in life in which a child develops secondary sex characteristics. Primary sex characteristics are organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in female and the testes in male. Secondary sex characteristics, on the other hand, are physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs. In females, this includes development of breasts and widening of hips, while in males it includes development of facial hair and deepening of the voice. Both sexes experience development of public and underarm hair, as well as increased development of sweat glands. Facial hair in males typically appears around age 14. 4.PHYSICAL GROWTH The adolescent growth spurt is a rapid increase in an individual's height during puberty resulting from the simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and androgens. Males experience their growth spurt about two years later than females. The accelerated growth in different body parts happens at different times, but for all adolescents it has a fairly regular sequence. The first places to grow are the extremities (head, hands and feet), followed by the arms and legs, and later the torso and shoulders. This non-uniform growth is one reason why an adolescent body may seem out of proportion. During puberty, bones become harder and more brittle. Before puberty, there are nearly no differences between males and females in the distribution of fat and muscle. During puberty, males grow muscle much faster than females, and females experience a higher increase in body fat. The ratio between muscle and fat in post- pubertal males in around 1:3, while for males it is about 5:4. An adolescent's heart and lungs increase in both size and capacity during puberty; these changes contribute to increased strength and tolerance for exercise. 5.BRAIN DEVELOPMENT The adolescent brain also remains under development during this time. Adolescents often engage in increased risk- taking behaviours and experience heightened emotions during puberty; this may be due to the fact that the frontal lobes of their brains– which are responsible for judgement, impulse control, and planning–are still maturing until early adulthood ▪ SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT-Emerging Capabilities in Later childhood Adolescence is a critical period for socio-emotional development as individuals experience significant changes in their emotional regulation, self-identity, and social relationships. This stage is characterized by increased independence, heightened emotional experiences, and the formation of a sense of self and belonging. 1.Emotional Regulation Adolescents face intense and fluctuating emotions due to hormonal changes and new social experiences. They gradually develop the ability to manage emotions like anger, sadness, and anxiety, though emotional outbursts may still occur. Strategies for coping and emotional control improve with age and experience. 2.Identity Formation Adolescents begin to explore questions like, "Who am I?" and "What is my role in society?" This stage, often referred to as an identity vs. role confusion phase (Erik Erikson), involves experimentation with values, beliefs, and career aspirations. Peer influence and societal expectations play a significant role in shaping their identity. 3.Increased Self-Awareness Adolescents become more aware of their thoughts, emotions, and how they are perceived by others. They may experience heightened self-consciousness, often worrying about fitting in or being judged. 4.Peer Relationships Friendships become deeper and more emotionally supportive. Adolescents rely on peers for companionship and validation. Social groups and cliques play a significant role in defining their sense of belonging and identity. Peer pressure may influence behaviours, choices, and decision-making during this stage. 5.Family Dynamics Adolescents seek independence, which can lead to conflicts with parents or guardians over rules and boundaries. Despite occasional conflicts, parental support and guidance remain essential for healthy emotional development. 6.Romantic Relationships Adolescents begin to explore romantic feelings and relationships. These early relationships contribute to the development of interpersonal skills and emotional intimacy. 7.Empathy and Moral Development Adolescents develop a deeper understanding of others’ perspectives, leading to greater empathy. They explore moral values and ethical principles, often questioning societal norms and forming their own beliefs. 8.Risk-Taking Behaviour Emotional impulsivity and a desire for independence may lead to risk-taking behaviours (e.g., experimenting with substances or defying authority). Peer influence and the need for social acceptance often contribute to such behaviours. ADULTHOOD An adult is a human who has attained the age of maturity and is therefore regarded as independent, self- sufficient and responsible. The age of attaining adulthood is eighteen (18). In adulthood, individual is able to manage multiple responsibilities, feelings of envy, flexibility, patience etc. Adulthood is a time period where the person realise that maturity is an on-going process, not a state and continuously striving for self-improvement. During the long period of adulthood, certain physical and psychological changes occur at predictable times. The subdivisions of adulthood are: Early adulthood (18-40 years) Middle adulthood (40-60 years) Later adulthood/old age (60 till death) EARLY ADULTHOOD (18 - 40 YEARS) ▪ PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT-Emerging Capabilities in Early Adulthood By the time we reach early adulthood, our physical maturation is complete, although our height and weight may increase slightly. In early adulthood, our physical abilities are at their peak, including muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities and cardiac functioning. Most professional athletes are at the top of their game during this stage and many women have children in early adulthood years. Around the age of thirty, many changes begin to occur in different parts of the body. For example, the lens of eye starts to stiffen and thicken; resulting changes vision (usually affecting the ability to focus on close objects). 1. Muscle Strength Adults have the capability to lift objects and at this age, they are conscious of their body and maintain physical fitness. 2. Ability to Reproduce This stage is also called Reproductive age. PARENTHOOD is one of the most important roles in the lives of most young adults. 3. Strong Bones Getting enough calcium in their diet, so their bones become healthy and strong. Bones can bear more weight in this age. They can perform strength training and weight bearing exercise. 4. Working Capacity They can work for long hours without taking break in between and capacity for performing any task increases. 5. Ability to focus on specific task for extending period If they are given specific task, they work on it for a prolonged period until the work is not completed. 6. Able to bear harsh climatic conditions They can work in harsh climatic conditions like soldiers on high altitude and farmers in fields during hot summers. 7. More Energetic They have high energy level at this moment of this age. They have less fatigue at this age and they can perform multiple activities at a time. 8) Feel more sexually attractive: At this moment, they are attractive towards opposite sex and do reproduction. Women can give birth to child ▪ SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT-Emerging Capabilities in Early Adulthood 1.Settling down age The adulthood is the time for settling down. Individuals are able to settle down in different lines of works. 2. Self- direction Adults feel the need to take responsibility for their lives and decisions. They have that much capability to handle situations on their own and know how to direct themselves. 3. Creative age Adulthood is able to do creativity and it depends on the individual interest. Interest in creative activities start in early adulthood and often do not reach their peak until middle age. Girls are able to do home decorations, dressing style, home duties and child care responsibilities. Boys are considered as less creative than girls. 4. Commitments As young adults change their role from that of student and independent, characteristics of adolescence, to that of independent adult, they establish new patterns of living, assume new responsibilities, and make new commitments. While these new patterns of living, new responsibilities, and new commitments may change later, they form the foundations on which later patterns of living, responsibilities and commitments will be established. 5. Active participation in social activities They take participation in different functions organised in the society. They take interest more in other religions such as church functions, gurudwara and have the ability of leadership roles in various organisations. 6. Practical and result Oriented They generally prefer practical knowledge that will improve their skills, facilitate their work and boost their confidence 7. Realistic self -concept develops Adults develop a feeling of self – concept. Self -concept is a collection of beliefs about oneself. Generally, self-concept embodies the answer to “WHO AM I?” By early adulthood individuals are confronted with developmental task of coordinating multiple role, or context specific self- representations into a coherent identity. 8. Leadership Qualities Adults achieve leadership status in different ways. Some are elected in office in a business or community organisations. Inspires peers to become leaders. The more leadership roles individuals play, the more confident they become of their abilities as leaders and they acquire more skills. 9. Social Mobility There are two types of mobility that play important roles in the lives of young adults, geographic and social. Geographic mobility means going from one place to another. This is done more often for vocational than for social reasons. MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (40- 60 years) ▪ PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT-Emerging Capabilities in Middle Adulthood 1.Decline in Strength and Endurance This decline is due to poor health. They are unable to lift objects and perform several physical activities. 2. Physical Discomfort Many middle -aged men complain of depression, anxiety, irritability, tingling sensations in their extremities, headache, insomnia, digestive issues, fatigue and minor aches and pains. 3.Sensory Abilities Most middle- aged person suffers from farsightedness or presbyopia, which is a gradual loss of accommodative power of the eye resulting from a decrease in the elasticity of the lens. Most middle-aged person must listen more attentively than they formally did. There is also a decrease in the sense of smell and taste with age. This is especially true for men. Reason behind this is the increase in hair of nose. 4. Weight Gain During middle – age, fat accumulates mainly around the abdomen and on the hips. 5. Muscle Changes Most middle-aged people’s muscle become soft and flabby in the areas of the chin, upper arm and abdomen. 6.Skin Changes The skin on the face, neck, arms and hands become coarser and wrinkled. Dark circles become more permanent and pronounced. 7.Menopause Syndrome In this age, there is a gradual decline in fertility, particularly for women. Women experiences MENOPAUSE, the cessation of menstrual cycle, which usually occurs at around age 50. It is because of the gradual decrease in the production of female sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone. ▪ SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT-Emerging Capabilities in Middle Adulthood 1.Social adjustments Middle age often brings with a renewed interests in social life. As the couple’s family responsibilities decreases and as their economic status improves, they are able to engage in social activities than they were during early adulthood, when family responsibilities and adjustments to work made an active social life difficult. Men belong to more community organisations than women, but women devote more time and effort to the activities of the organisation. Middle age people make better social adjustments because they must depend more on people outside the home for companionship. 2. Community Affairs The middle-aged people devote more time to community affairs or in leadership roles in different community organisations. During this age people participated in different functions to enjoy themselves, to help others, to be of service to the community or to advance socially, culturally or professionally. Loneliness is the only reason for joining community organisation. In many cases it is best opportunity they have for social contacts and if they want to be socially mobile, to have an opportunity to get to know the people they want to be identified with. 3. Life Patterns Middle aged people should recognize that circumstances in old age, such as poor health or reduced income, may force them to move from their homes and change their life patterns. Those who are unprepared to make such things will have difficulty in adjusting to a new pattern of life. 4.Time Management Middle aged people use their leisure time in various activities like gardening, sewing, painting, cooking and woodworking etc. 5. Give preference to Family Middle age person gives more time to family, work hard for their children, to give them better future. 6. Practical and result Oriented They generally prefer practical knowledge that will improve their skills, facilitate their work and boost their confidence. 7. Less open minded As middle aged are less open minded and more resistant to change. Maturity and profound life experiences usually lead to rigidity, which is the enemy of learning. LATER ADULTHOOD / OLD AGE (60 till death) ▪ PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT-Emerging Capabilities in Later Adulthood 1. Sensory Decline Vision: Increased difficulty seeing in low light, reduced peripheral vision, and potential issues like cataracts or macular degeneration. Hearing: Loss of high-frequency hearing (presbycusis) and difficulty distinguishing sounds in noisy environments. Taste and Smell: Reduced sensitivity, which may impact appetite and enjoyment of food. Touch: Diminished sensitivity to temperature, pressure, and pain. 2.Muscle Strength and Mobility Decrease in muscle mass (sarcopenia) and bone density, leading to a higher risk of fractures. Reduced flexibility and joint stiffness due to wear and tear on cartilage. 3.Cardiovascular and Respiratory Function Decreased efficiency of the heart and lungs, leading to reduced stamina and endurance. Slower recovery from physical exertion. 4.Neurological Changes Slower reaction times and decreased coordination. Potential cognitive decline, though this varies widely among individuals. 5.Immune System The immune system weakens, making older adults more susceptible to illness and infections. ▪ SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT-Emerging Capabilities in Later Adulthood 1.Social Participation Social- economic Status: Socioeconomic status plays an important role in the amount of participation in the community and social organisations. A change in individual’s status, either due to a loss of spouse or retirement, is likely to affect friendship and social participation. 2.Religious / Spiritual Interests Although it is popularly believed that people turn to religion as life draws to a close, there is a little evidence to support this belief. Elderly people may become more religious as death approaches or if someone is in serious condition. Most people carry on religious beliefs and habits formed earlier in life. Changes in religious beliefs during old age are generally in the direction of acceptance of traditional beliefs associated with the individual’s faith. 3.Feeling of Guilt about Idleness Many older people in today’s world grew up in a more work- oriented society, therefore feel guilty after retirement or after their home responsibilities have diminished. 4. Use personal experience as resource Old aged people have the tendency to link their past experiences to any new concept based on prior learning. They encourage learning, provide motivation, discussion and sharing and generally create a learning community consists of people who profoundly interact COGNITIVE EVOLUTION: EMERGING CAPABILITIES IN METACOGNITION, CREATIVITY AND ETHICS ▪ COGNITION Cognition is defined as the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. It is the ability to perceive and react, process and understand, store and retrieve information, make decisions and produce appropriate responses. Cognitive functioning is critical for day-to-day life, governing our thoughts and actions. We need cognition to help us understand information about the world around us and interact safely with our environment, as the sensory information we receive is vast and complicated, cognition is needed to distil all this information down to its essentials. Cognitive Development in Adolescence Cognitive development means the growth of a child’s ability to think and reason. This growth happens differently from ages 6 to 12, and ages 12 to 18. Children ages 6 to 12 years old develop the ability to think in concrete ways. These are called concrete operations. Ages 12 to 18 is called adolescence. This age group does more complex thinking. This type of thinking is also known as formal logical operations. They include the ability to: Do abstract thinking-This means thinking about possibilities. Reason from known principles-This means forming own new ideas or questions. Consider many points of view-This means to compare or debate ideas or opinions. Think about the process of thinking-This means being aware of the act of thought processes. Early Adolescence Children begin their teen years discovering their own personalities. Up until this point, many decisions have been made by parents, often with little or limited input from the child. During early adolescence, children are being allowed to use their thinking skills to make up their own minds about things. A child in early adolescence: Uses more complex thinking focused on personal decision-making in school and at home. Begins to show use of formal logical operations in schoolwork. Begins to question authority and society standards. Begins to form and speak his or her own thoughts and views on a variety of topics. You may hear the child talk about which sports or groups he or she prefers, what kinds of personal appearance is attractive, and what parental rules should be changed. Sometimes the views of the early adolescent are in direct opposition to the adult who cares for them and teen conflicts start brewing. Middle Adolescence Middle adolescence can be trying for both the teen and the parent. This is the time when cognitive development is broadening and the teen thinks in more futuristic terms. Complex thinking skills are used to focus on how a teen views the world around him and where he fits into the picture. A child in middle adolescence: Expands thinking to include more philosophical and futuristic concerns. Often questions and analyses more extensively. Thinks about and begins to form his or her own code of ethics (for example, what do I think is right?). Thinks about different possibilities and begins to develop own identity (for example, who am I?). Thinks about and begins to systematically consider possible future goals (for example, what do I want?). Thinks about and begins to make his or her own plans. Begins to think long-term. Uses systematic thinking, begins to influence relationships with others. Late Adolescence During late adolescence, the complex thinking skills which have been developed are now used to focus on more global thoughts. The teen becomes less self-centred and more mature, looking at what his role is in the community. A teen now must figure out what kind of adult he will be and how he will fit into the adult world. A child in late adolescence: Uses complex thinking to focus on less self-centred concepts and personal decision- making. Has increased thoughts about more global concepts, such as justice, history, politics, and patriotism. Often develops idealistic views on specific topics or concerns. May debate and develop intolerance of opposing views. Begins to focus thinking on making career decisions. Begins to focus thinking on emerging role in adult society. Healthy living choices. Fostering Cognitive Growth in Adolescents Through Parental Support Parents and adult caregivers can help the cognitive development of the adolescent by encouraging open communication. Allowing teens to express opinions and to learn to listen and accept opposite views will assist the teen in forming mature thinking patterns. Sometimes a simple nod will offer the encouragement teens need during this self-discovery period to increase their ability to practice critical thinking. Parents who demonstrate examples of healthy living and are able to show their teens how to think through difficult situations help the adolescent establish strong cognitive development milestones. The process of cognitive development in adolescence can be an emotional roller coaster but with parental guidance and good role modelling, the teen will develop into a mature and clear-thinking adult capable of making appropriate choices for a productive life. ▪ METACOGNITION Metacognition refers to higher order thinking which involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning. It involves activities such as planning, comprehension, monitoring, evaluation and completion of a task which is problem solving in nature. Metacognition word come from the root word “META” that means beyond, so it is also called ‘cognition about cognition’, ‘knowing about knowing’ and ‘thinking about thinking’ Examples of metacognitive activities include planning how to approach a learning task, using appropriate skills and strategies to solve a problem, monitoring one’s own comprehension of text, self-assessing and self-correcting in response to the self-assessment, evaluating progress toward the completion of a task, and becoming aware. Characteristics of metacognition It’s relatively stable, like an intuitive model of knowledge and how knowledge works. Observable and communicable (you can access the knowledge to reflect on it and talk about it). Fallible. It can lead to mistaken reasoning and incorrect ideas. Late-developing. This type of knowledge appears in the last stage of development because it requires the ability to make abstractions. Special characteristics during adolescence In adolescence period of life associated with the emergence of self-concept and enhanced self-awareness. Meta cognition ability improved significantly with age during adolescence, was highest in late adolescence and plateaued going into adulthood. It plays important role in communication, decision making, problem solving, reading comprehension, social cognition and self-instruction. Relationship between cognition and metacognition In term of metacognition skill, one can’t engage in planning without carry out cognitive activities such as generating problem solving steps and sequencing those steps. Metacognitive and cognitive strategies may overlap, such as questioning could be regarded as either a cognitive or a metacognitive strategy depending upon the purpose, self-questioning while reading as a mean of obtaining knowledge as cognitive while monitoring what you have read is metacognition. If metacognition us received as set of self-instruction for regulating task performance, then cognition is the vehicle of those self-instructions. ▪ Creativity Terminological meaning is “the use of imagination or original ideas to create something”.it is a process not a product. Goal directed either for personal benefit or for the benefit of social group. It leads to production of something new or different. It Comes from divergent thinking. Creativity depends upon the acquisition of accepted knowledge. It is a form of controlled imagination that leads to some kind of achievement. Development of creativity Although young children are often spontaneous, free, and seemingly creative they do not produce truly new and valuable products. Meaningful creativity begins in adolescence with the development of abstract thinking capacity. Everyone must remember that risk-taking is a frequent feature of teen age years and risk-taking of some degree also becomes characteristic of adult creativity. Creativity that begin in adolescence are manifested in visual artistic pursuits, musical performance and composition, aspects of abstract and formal thinking capacities, and technical pursuits and exploration. These all develop rapidly during this period. Creative identity, the sense of oneself as a creative person, tends to start in adolescence and continue throughout life. This identity serves as a direct motivating factor for the acquisition of necessary skills and the pursuit of creative endeavours. Make no mistake, parental forcing of children to be creative certainly is not effective. Successful creation requires healthy psychological processes and the flower of healthy adolescent development. Fostering the creative process Encouraging children to make their own choices is important. Children should be permitted frequent opportunities - and lots of time - to experience and explore expressive materials. Put emphasis on the process of creativity and not on the finished product. Show support for the creative process by appreciating and offering support for children's efforts. Independence and control are important components in the creative process. This is especially true when working with children with disabilities. ▪ ETHICS Ethics emphasizes the responsibility and capability of the individual to come to his/her own conclusions through reasoning, and to determine which principles are relevant in a particular case. Basically, ethics are how we decide whether something that we do, or someone else does, is right or wrong. Ethical characteristics during adolescence Punishment and reward are less important than a general sense of social norms – a desire to fit in and to be liked which has a tremendous influence on how they behave and react to situations. They realize that in order to create a cooperative society people must work together to decide what is acceptable, and what is not. They recognize that rules are simply created by other people. As a result, teens begin to question the absolute authority of parents, schools, government, and other institutions. They develop a personal morality that is independent from the laws and values of their society. They believe and act, based on principles that they consider to be right even if society believes they are wrong. They start arguing more effectively and put their point of views in front of people. Adolescents also begin to understand that the difference between right and wrong is not an absolute but instead must take into account changing variables such as context, motivation, abilities, and intentions. They may choose to participate in activities that demonstrate their moral convictions. They develop a sense of values and ethical behaviour: recognizing the value of traits such as honesty, helpfulness, caring for others. They begin to develop a social conscience: becoming concerned about social issues such as racism, global warming and poverty. Adolescents may have also observed the adults in their life making immoral decisions that disregarded the rights and welfare of others, leading these youth to develop beliefs and values that are contrary to the rest of society. Relation between creativity and ethics Ethics uphold traditional beliefs whereas, creativity, however, tends to eschew the traditional in favour of the new. Creativity supports the innovative and celebrates disruption. Ethics leans toward the more established. Synonyms for ethics include convention and imperative. Synonyms for creative include visionary and inspired. ISSUES RELATED TO PUBERTY PUBERTY Puberty is the time of life when the child experiences physical and hormonal changes that mark transition to adulthood or in other words boys and girls become sexually mature. Puberty in boys occurs from age 12 and 16, and in girls from 10 and 14. 1.Emotional changes and problems: Confusion about their role Teenagers many a times are confused about their role that who they are and what they have to do and are stuck between their responsibilities as adults and their desires as children. They undergo with identity crisis. Society want them to behave like adult and take decision about future, manage relationship, help family financially etc. They want to have comfortable life like children which ultimately lead to a confusion. Overly Emotional Responses They tend to feel overly emotional due to changes at hormonal levels (oestrogen and Progesterone in girls, Testosterone in boys) and anything and everything can make them happy, excited, sad or angry. As they are growing awareness about themselves and surrounding world that tend them to be much sensitive toward any event, response, rejection, criticism etc which is not even a minute thing for other adults. Vulnerability to Crying in Adolescent Girls Adolescent girls are vulnerable to crying. Girls have an increased tendency to cry. Society make an image of girls being so kind, caring, empathetic that make girls to be like that and cry over small things. They sometime feel not so worthy due to hormones as well as emotional reasons. Mood Swings in Teenage Boys and Girls Mood swings are common among teenage boys and girls. Sometime they have intense feeling of happiness, excitement and on another side feel sad or have anger. They go from an overly confident stage to an insecure state in a moment. Both have mood swings but boys in order to be fit in society image for being masculine suppress their emotions while girls tend to express. This confuse themselves as well as others. Feelings of Inferiority or Superiority Feelings of inferiority or superiority may arise at this time. They start to compare themselves with others or they invest much on social comparison only that can lead do inferiority if they see them as below or do not have attractive figures, communication skills, or intelligence and superiority if above then others in attractiveness, intelligence etc. This inferiority develop sense of low confidence while superiority make them over confident both of which are problematic. Self-Consciousness Due to Bodily Changes Self-consciousness arise due to physical changes in body and they start becoming aware about their body. Sudden increase in height, weight, etc cause them to feel how other look at them. They started feeling uncomfortable to thing like breast enlargement, menstruation in girls while facial hairs in boys. They want to fit in societal image of boys being strong body and girls being soft. Emergence of Sexual Feelings and Guilt Sexual feelings start to arise at this adolescent phase. They start to have attraction to others which lead to confusion as they still are in their identity crisis stage. Teenagers explore about their sexual identity which sometimes lead to confusion among themselves. If they think about themselves as female but the society or environment in which they live see them as male then it can lead to guilt in them. Also, as family and society do not want discussion on Sex which lead to either no information or wrong information about sex that cause them to feel guilty even about their feelings. These changes further leads to issues and challenges like Establishing Identity Most adolescents raised with important question like, “who am I? Am I fitting in this world?”. Those who did not have an identity formation eventually , find it difficult to fit themselves in their surrounding world like in home, school , etc. They feel disconnected from their peer and then it lead to isolation. Social media , external pressures, etc distort the adults identity and they start having confusion about their identity. Teenagers who are in confusion about their identity feel out of place in many situations which ultimately lead to conflicts. Establishing Autonomy Autonomy means the ability to make one's own decisions, control one's actions, and take responsibility for them. It does not mean complete independence or a desire to compel against authority. This leads to feeling of self sufficiency as well as confidence. They want to become responsible for their own actions, to think critically etc. If they do not develop sense of autonomy then this lead to low confidence, over dependence on parents and others. Success and Competition Society lead to develop the feeling of competition among peers. Society always inculcates among teens that they get success only if they compete with others. Adolescents are influenced by what their peers are doing for achievements. All this lead to stress, anxiety and depression among them. Teens should have the ability to figure out what they want to achieve and what they should do to achieve that. Following their own interest will make them successful. Intimacy As the adults start developing at emotional level also so they form deeper bond by having intimacy which at initial stage is with same sex but later expands. They start to learn how to cope with those feelings of attraction, connection etc. In some teenagers there is difficulty to develop intimacy which is due to their past experiences and trauma at emotional levels. Adult teens consider intimacy equal to sex but it is not so it is equal to emotional connection, careens and trust. 2. Behavioural Issues and Challenges: Questioning Parental Rules Teens develop feeling of autonomy due to which they start to become rebellious according to their parents. They start questioning to their parents about rules. This lead to arguments or being stubbornness according to their parents. These questioning and stubbornness arise due to their development of cognition that make them to think logically and critically. Teens are not considering their parents values or disrespecting them this means that they want to explore new beliefs, new things etc. This is a step toward independency. Risk-Taking Behaviour Teens start to take risk without any fear. They start to experimenting and exploring with substances, do stunts by bad driving etc. which could lead to injury as well as other harmful consequences. Teens are not aware about the consequences they can face if they do something wrong and harmful. Lying to Avoid Confrontation They start to lie in order to cover up mistakes. They have a fear of punishments by parents. Also, they want to avoid confrontations from their parents. They do not want to loose trust of their parents for them and also, they don’t have skill to solve complex problem which make them to do mistakes and hence consequently lie which become a problem. Physical Confrontations in Teenage Boys Due to hormonal changes (testosterone) they have an increased aggression which lead them to be authoritative and confront others. Their brain is still developing which lead to no control on emotions and have an impulsive behaviour. Teenagers want to assert their dominance, fight to gain respect in a society which lead to confronting behaviours if others do not want to listen to them. Changes in Appearance and Fashion Adolescents tries experimenting with their appearance by changing fashion which lead to their fights with parents who did not approve that. Teenagers want to change their clothing style, hairstyles etc in order to look good and assert their individuality. Parents see the changes as sudden and do not want their child to do that which lead to fights among them. Parents instead of judging their choice should support them. Peer Pressure Adolescents got influenced with their peers. Peer influence shape the behaviour in adolescents whih could be in bad way or in a good way. Teens want to change their identity, lifestyle, attitudes everything according to their peers. It lead them to indulge in bad habits like smoking, drinking etc. These habits are hard to even change. 3. Substance Use and Abuse Adolescents want to explore everything due to which sometimes they become more tend to use bad substances like alcohol, drugs etc. Low Self-Esteem and Desire to Be 'Cool' Adolescents who do not have confidence over their body image feel a pressure to use substances so that they become fit in among the peers. They want to look cool among peer groups which lead them to use inaccurate substances. They think that these behaviours will make them famous and rich in society. Role Models at Home Adolescents are mostly influenced by their family members and if in family suppose sibling, or parents are addicted to smoking, alcohol etc then this lead them to develop same habits. Parents also do not intervene them which lead to their destruction only. Risk-Taking Behavior Teens want to explore new things, to expand their boundaries, which lead them to show behaviour which are risky and harmful. They firstly tries smoking, alcohol and drugs which ultimately lead to an addiction. This happens due to their non awareness about consequences of these things on their health. Peer Pressure The type of friends company the teenagers have influence their behaviours. They wants to strongly fit among their peers which lead to such behaviours. Suppose a group consider drinking as a sign of attractiveness then all their members drink in order to fit in them. Substance Use as a Habit: If not addressed early then a fun can turn to habit. Teen start using substance as a fun to navigate stress, depression, anxiety but later develop it as a habit that did not goes away rather increases with time. Easy Access to Substances The easy availability of substances like alcohol, cigarettes, recreational drugs, or anabolic steroids can also increase the tendency that a teen will try them. In some communities or environments, these substances are easily accessible, at parties, from older friends or siblings, or even from parents. The convenience of access makes it easy for teens to try substances without facing major barriers or consequences initially. 4. Educational challenges Pressure to Perform Academically Adolescents as they are transitioning to higher school so they have a pressure to perform well to achieve their goals like getting admission to colleges. Parents and teacher set higher expectations form teens which lead to stress, anxiety and depression. All these lead to self- doubt on own abilities if they do not meet their expectations. Balancing School and Extracurricular Activities Teens i.e. high schools students are very much expected to excel in academics, and along with also participate in extracurricular activities which build a good resume helping to get jobs. Extracurricular activities include music, paintings, sports etc. Teens feel stress and pressure to have a balance between their academics and extracurricular activities. Distractions Teens always face distractions during their academics study like social media, personal issues and peer attitudes. All these diverts or distract their attention from academics and teen do not study and neglect everything. These also lead to low or poor academic performances. 5. Social Problems – Dating and Relationships Peer Pressure and Competition: Adolescents are influenced by peers. If their peers are dating someone then others feel it as as status of being cool and want to be in relationships. These peer pressure about social relationships negatively impacts self-esteem and confidence. Teens in order to fit in image created by others peers engage in risky behaviours, aggressive behaviours like fighting to compete for partners etc. All these lead to have negative impact. Exploring Sexuality In adolescence phase teens start to experimenting with their sexuality. They want to explore about their feelings, and relationships. Teens struggle to find their identity, their feelings, or behaviours in relationships. All these storms of feeling lead to guilt, confusion and doubt. Lack of information Teens do not have proper and complete information about sexuality as society discourage the topics like Sex etc. Society consider that as taboo which lead to lack of information among teens. 6. Health Problems in Adolescence Adolescence is a phase where teens become very considerate about their diets and nutrition which lead to various health issues. Poor Nutrition and Lack of Rest As teenagers have school, and extracurricular activities so they become very busy on these things which ultimately lead to ignorance of their nutrition and rest. Teens skip proper food and nutrition, eat unhealthy foods which lead to nutrient deficiency and health problems. Some also do not take rest and continue to study or do work which lead to fatigue. Obesity Teens often do not do physical exercises, eat unhealthy food and prefer to remain at one place for longer time due to phones which make them to gain weight. They prefer to eat outside oily junk food, sweet dishes, etc rather than homemade food which causes them to be obese and fat. Obesity will lead to various health issues like diabetes, heart attacks etc. Eating Disorders Teenagers specially girls experience body image issues and become self-conscious about their appearance. This leads to unhealthy eating habits or, in some cases, eating disorders such as anorexia (feeling fatty) or bulimia (eat very large amount of food in short time i.e. binge eating). These disorders can have serious physical and psychological consequences, including malnutrition, organ damage, and mental health challenges. 7. Psychological Problems in Adolescence Mental health disorders start in adolescence which is a major concern. Academic Pressure and Performance In academics if there is poor performances, lack of intelligence due to various reasons like distractions from social media, or others lead to self-doubt in teenagers. They develop low confidence and do not study as they consider them as incapable of performing well in academics. They have no motivation which affects their mental health. Low Self-Esteem and Body Image Issues Teenagers feel insecure about their appearance about their skin colour, how they look, their body shape etc. They consider them as not appropriate in society by comparing with peers. All this develop feeling of insecurity and inferiority affecting their mental health. Eating Disorders Teenagers are insecure about their body image which lead them to be very considerate about their diet. They want to change their physical appearance in order to fit in image of beauty created by society. This will lead to either low diet, or junk unhealthy food that cause them to have disorders and mental imbalance. Depression, Anxiety and Stress Depression, anxiety, and stress can have a profound impact on the psychological well-being of adolescents, often affecting their emotional and mental health in complex ways. Depression can lead to sadness, hopelessness, and disinterest in activities that reduce their ability to engage socially and academically. Anxiety, lead to excessive worry, fear can cause adolescents to avoid situations or become socially withdrawn. Long time stress, due to academic pressures, peer relationships, and family issues, can lead to irritation, mood swings, and low concentration, impacting emotional regulation and cognitive functioning. 8. Sexual health Puberty led to development of secondary sexual characteristics like breasts development, rounded hips, a menstrual cycle, increased body fat composition, and relative lack of body hairs. Teenagers become curious about their bodies, and sexes. First Experiences This is a phase where teenagers experiences many things for first time like intimacy, kisses, relationships with boyfriends or girlfriends. All these experiences are new to them which can develop guilt in some while confusions in others. Risks of Premature Sexual Activity Teenagers have a tendency to attracted toward other genders which lead to unprotected sexual activities without any prior guidance and this can cause serious issues later like sexually transmitted diseases like HIV, unwanted pregnancies. Sexually transmitted diseases cause the sexual health to be worsen. 9. Aggression and Violence Physical and Emotional Changes in Boys Boys undergo many physical changes like muscle gains, increase height as well deepened voice all these changes along with mood swings lead them to behave aggressively. They become frustrated and irritated on very small issues and cannot control their emotions. All these lead to fight sometimes. Girls also have aggressive behaviours if they are in relationships. They sometime feels that they are not so worthy according to their partners, experience physical violence which disturb them mentally and emotionally. Peer Pressure and Negative Influences Teenagers are prone to fall in bad company which lead them to behave in their ways. They got influenced to do substance use and start hitting anyone who ask them to stop their bad habits. They become violent as they want to prove their dominance and masculinity. 10.Cyberspace addiction Impact of Social Media and Internet Adolescent always want to spend a lot of their time in social media, and internet. They see negative videos which promote negativity, play games, texting all the time etc. It have a role in development of teens but sometimes lead to addiction and development of bad habits if not used properly. Impact on Academic Performance As teens spend most of the time on social media and internet, they find it boring and difficult to focus on studies which ultimately lead to poor academics. Social Isolation and Sedentary Lifestyle Teens always remain on phone which lead to least interactions with their parents, society, teachers and peers and this will hamper their social development. Also, they sit at only one place for hours which make them obese and other health issues of mental health and physical health. Facebook depression Researchers have proposed this term called as Facebook depression. This means teen spend a lot of time on social media apps like Facebook which lead to depression, and other mental health issues in them. Teenagers are suffering from online harassment and bullying that make them to feel vulnerable. Social media connects people but it have negative impact of social isolation as face-to-face interaction decreased. Sexting It means sending and receiving and even forwarding sexually explicit videos, messages and images by phones, laptops etc. A survey was done which revealed that 20% of teens posted their semi nudes images on social media and even sent them to many peoples. This lead to have a negative impact on teenagers who in order to imitate other peers start doing bad things. Parental-Teacher Guidance: Supporting Teenagers Through Adolescence Parents should have ability to listen to their teens about what they feel, what they want to do without judging them. They should validate their feelings and provide emotional support to them. Parents should encourage them to take care about their emotional and physical health by eating healthy food, having enough sleep etc. Normalize their responses and emotions. Encourage child to understand that it is not good to fall in bad habits and they should withdraw from these habits. Consider that this fit in peers approach is natural among teens but if they are fitting in a bad habit then parents should stop them. They should make teens aware about consequences of being in bad company. Parents should be aware about their child behaviours. If there are sudden dramatic changes in behaviours, appetite, sleep, social interactions then immediately pay attention to it and start helping child to navigate changes easily Teacher as well as parents should help or assist teen to be on track. They should keep an eye on whether they are of Parents should be open to discuss about topics like dating, relationships and sexuality with a non-judgemental attitude. They should make teen aware about a healthy relationship, how to respect each other, and what are consequences of bad sexual activities etc. Build trust among teens if they are not comfortable on discussions about relationships, problems etc. Make them to believe that you are there to support them. Adolescents experience issues with their body image and need an emotional support and understanding. Parents should always be open to conversations, should help them emotionally and provide reassurance. If child have regular mood swings, then parents should consult to professional guidance for their child and support them. Awareness programmes should be provided to teens in schools regarding Sexually transmitted diseases, unwanted pregnancies and how to prevented them. This will help teens to navigate this phase. Parent and teachers should teach them to be kind and have compassion for others. Thet should taught how to control their emotions, anger etc. to avoid conflicts Parents and teachers should encourage offline activities like sports, family picnics etc which keep them away from their phones and to be engaged in interaction and also do physical activities which make them fit. GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT Gender and development are very important field to study about challenges and problems that affects people’s daily lives like in gender equality, empowerment etc. Women are always given a disadvantaged position. According to historical view women do not play much role in development of society. But modern theories says that women also have an equal participation in society development. Nation success and failure depend on women role also. Meaning of Gender Gender is not related to masculinity or feminine. It is different from biological sex that is assigned in womb only rather it refers to social roles, expectations and behaviours related to male and female in a society. Society define what does it mean to be male and female. Society make an image and other have to behave accordingly. World Economic Forum says that gender is not related to women but with both men and women. Gender identity It refers to personals internal sense of being male or female or others. Children develop their gender identity by age of three recognizing themselves either a boy, girl or others. This is personal suppose if someone assigned as male at birth identifies them as female. Relationship between Gender and Development- Gender is used as a concept to understand how previously women kept below men, have less powers, status and opportunities. This concept of gender also helped to understand how women are marginalized in many aspects of development. In old times women was excluded or left out from decision making, empowerment etc. This women and development approach focused on well-being of a society including men, women and children. Gender Socialization It is the process through which individuals learn and internalizes norms of society, behaviour according to their roles and expectations. Children in their early life only taught with appropriate behaviours for boys and girls. This gender socialization have a role in personality development, social relationships, and their career choices. Influences of Gender Socialization Family It is the first place where the role of gender are learned. Parents model the behaviours which child imitate to learn. Father do repair, manage finances while mother cook food, care for others and do others household chores. Girl and boys both sees this and develop behaviours accordingly like girls tries to do task which her mother does while boy do what his father does. Girls start to cook, do other household chores while boys do repair etc. Also, parents choose clothes and their colour according to genders. Peer Groups Due to societal pressures peer groups also enforce gender roles. It is taught that boys are tough and competitive while girls should be kind, soft and corporative. Peers or friends always intervene and ask boy not to cry as boys are strong. Peers align their behaviour according to appropriate gendered behaviours according to society. Media Televisions, movies, social media reinforce the gender stereotypes. All these sources of information shows Men as leaders while women as caretakers and housemakers. Also, the advertisements on TV shows gendered based toys like dolls for girls, cars for boys etc. So, these media plays a role in emphasizing role of genders among children. Media also enforces beauty standard that girls should be beautiful and lean while boys should be dominant. Gender Socialization in the Classroom/Learning Situation Gender socialization in classroom is very important area to concern. In a classroom environment gender roles and expectations are often visible which influence student behaviour, participation and their academic choices. There should be inclusive and non- biased environment for them to learn. Gendered Language In gendered role and stereotypes the kind of language teacher and student use in class plays a role. A teacher choice of language can unintentionally make gender norms which lead to limit students for their full potential. Teacher unintentionally favour one gender then other by using terms like masculinity, policeman rather than police officer, Sentences that involve much use of his rather than her. All this lead to inculcate in students mind that a particular gender can do this (boy can become police but girl cannot) and another can do that. They segregate themselves according to gendered capabilities. Feedback and praise Teachers provide feedbacks on gendered basis sometimes unintentionally. For example - They give more praise to boys than girls. Also, they ask girls to be kind and cooperative which ultimately inculcate a gendered role in them. Questioning Many researches are done which says that teachers many times ask question to boys than girls. This difference lead a girl to feel low confidence and they start to not engage in much activities. Boys and Leadership Researches also shows that boys are always asked to do leadership roles, dominate the class by becoming monitor which led to suppress girls. Also subject like maths are considered for boys only which lead to less girl studying mathematics in colleges. CURRICULUM: Many educational materials ignore the contribution of women in many researches, innovations, revolutions etc. In science and maths Marie Curie, Rosalind franklin contributed lot but textbooks do not much talk about this which ultimately cause gender differences. All this can lead to less participation rate in classroom activities by girls as they considered them incapable. They also develop low confidence considering that they are not deserving as compared to boys in academics. Also, this gender roles affect career choice in both boys and girls they consider to opt for specified roles according to genders. Strategies to promote gender inclusive language Teachers should use neutral language and not use language which point at particular gender like use police officer rather than policeman. Teachers should encourage all student be it boys, girls and others to participate in activities. This will inculcate them that there is nothing which only men can do or women can do. They can do everything they want. Curriculum should include materials which challenge all these gendered roles created by society. This will lead to break the old thinking of gendered roles and encourage all students. Also include all fields like technology, politics etc which show women roles. Teacher should randomly select students for questions and answers not a particular gender. Professional programmes should be runned to teach teachers about proper language use. Gender-Fair Education It is an approach which ensure that boys, girls and other all should have an equal opportunity to learn participate and succeed in educational system. Educational framework should ensure equal access and opportunities to all students which is important for inclusive learning environment. Gender Equality vs. Gender Equity Gender equality means providing equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities to all genders. In education it means equal access to all students for resources to learn. Gender equity means providing support to all according to their needs and different levels. Traditional gender stereotypes and differences limit student for proper access in education. Lack of resources, more emphasis on men in curriculum, and methods of teaching, less support according to needs lead to unfair educational access. Strategies to achieve gendered fair education Curriculum should be designed in such a way that it challenge the gender stereotypes and promote gender diversity. Material that reflects on contribution of all genders and address issues like gender basis discrimination. Government should develop more policies which promote gender equity as well as equality in education. Encourage high enrolment of all genders un schools and colleges. Parents as well as community should equally participate in discussions regarding gender equity and equality and provide a positive environment where all irrespective of gender can participate and learn. Teachers should be trained in a way that they can recognizes each one needs, and adopt a fair teaching practice. They are taught to use neutral language, increase classroom activities for more participation by all students, etc. Also, they should use different teaching methods and materials to cater different learning styles so that all students irrespective of gender feel accessibility to learning. Teachers and schools administration should use the new technologies of teaching which will enhance accessibility of education to all even marginalized genders also. If someone cannot come to school then provide them with online classes. Provide laptops, phones if someone cannot afford. To uplifting girls is not the only aim of gender fair education but rather it also empower both girls, boys and others. So, teacher should empower every student. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT (SOCIAL, CULTURAL, POLITICAL) ON THE GROWING CHILD The development of growing child is deeply influenced by various environmental factors like Social, cultural, and political contexts. Each of these play an important role to shape the child emotional, social and cognitive development. Social Environment It include the relationship and interactions the child has with family, peers, and community. Social Expectations Societies expect to child to achieve the specific developmental milestones at various ages. 1. Infancy and Early Childhood (0-6 years) Child should achieve physical and language milestones like walking and speaking in order to gain independence. Child should learn motor skills like climbing, running, etc for physical development. Child also learns how to control own body and do simple task like going to toilet. Basic early literacy skills like to recognize letters and words. 2. Later Childhood (6-13 years) Child should develop coordination and physical skills that are important for sports and recreational activities. Child should learn social skills like cooperation, sharing which are important for healthy relationships with peers and others. Child should develop self-identity and confidence due to their social interaction, school and home. Numeracy and literacy skill should be developed. 3. Adolescence (13-18 years) Adolescents should accept the various physical changes that they are going through due to hormonal changes. Adolescents should start developing relationships as well as roles in family. Adolescents should develop ethics, moral values influenced by families, society and peers which will help them in decision making. Adolescents should start to plan about their future careers, and develop professional values. So, societies have own expectation about what children should learn and develop at each stage. Peers influence Peers attitude and behaviours impact the child development if there is positive peer interactions then social skills become good and enhanced, while negative interactions lead to risky behaviours and sometimes withdrawals. Studies also indicates that children who have a strong peer relationship will engage more in healthy behaviours. Interactions with peers’ children will develop how to regulate, manage and express their emotions. Peer groups shape the identity of adolescents, their choice and behaviours. Family dynamics Child learn behaviours and society rules by observations within family. Parents are like role model to their child and child will learn behaviours by imitating them. If family environment is nurturing then child feels emotional secured. If parents are supportive then child will develop self-confidence. Open communication within families encourages children to express their thoughts and feelings freely. This skill are important for healthy peer relationships. Cultural Changes Cultural factors plays an important role to shape the child identity and values. It include parenting styles, educational approaches, social norms etc. Parenting Styles and Practices This means how parents raise their children which differs in different societies. In some cultures, parents are dominating who emphasizes obedience led to suppression of their child. Child do not express their views and interest on career choices. In western cultures parents encourage independence and self-expression which lead the child do develop healthy milestone. Learning styles and educational influence Different cultures have different learning methods. Some culture focus on repetition and rote memorization and others focus on critical thinking which lead to problem solving. Rote memorization lead to less development of cognitive skills and have difficulty to think critically. So, teachers should be able to recognize various cultural methods of learning and cater according to that. Socialization and Identity Formation Cultural changes influence how children Will behave socially. Children while growing want acceptance among peers. Some culture encourage competitiveness among peers which will lead to depression in some child. Child start considering themselves as incapable if they score less grades then peers. So, they start isolating themselves from others considering themselves as inferior and hence social skills can’t be developed. As culture in home and in society are different which leads to conflicts if society want the child to follow their dominant culture. Also, different cultures have different norms for expression of emotions like in some western cultures man should not cry and need to be strong which will ultimately suppress man to express their emotions. It will hamper their development. Political Environment Political environment also have a role to shape the child development. It includes education, health and overall well-being. Political influence is observed by policies, norms, and the political environment in which child is developing. Government policies regarding education determine the teachers training, curriculum, accessibility to learning and funding to schools. If schools do not given funds for resources, teachers training then educational outcome will be poor. Suppose if proper funds for resources, training etc are given then all children will receive quality education irrespective of economic and social status. There should be access to healthcare for children like equal treatments for all which will improve physical and mental development. If policies are not good regarding healthcare, then it will lead to least accessibility for treatment of all. There should be laws regarding protection of child, their welfare and services which will ensure that they are given equal rights. If laws are not strict then child will suffer from discrimination in their rights, accessibility etc. It will hamper child social as well as cognitive development. Policies regarding social services, taxes will affect child healthy development, nutrition as well as their accessibility to education. If family income is not enough to support child education and they also have to pay tax then it became difficult for child to study. Government should provide subsidies for child education, for food etc which will help them to develop to their full potential in any cognitive, emotional, and social aspects. If child grow in politically active environment, then they become vocal and develop civic awareness. Parents who encourages their child to learn about political values and beliefs lead to a fully developed child in cognition, emotional, social aspects. Children are influenced by the political ideologies present in their communities. For example, exposure to diverse viewpoints can encourage critical thinking and open- mindedness, while a lack of diversity may lead to narrow perspectives. Exposure to political violence can lead to a trauma on child mental health. Child who lose some of his family member in violence will have depression, stress, anxiety and he / she will never be able to trust on political parties. Also, some child will learn violence only by observation and exhibit same behaviours in future. Conclusion Emerging capabilities across physical and social-emotional domains are prominent during childhood and adolescence. Physically, individuals experience rapid growth in height, weight, and motor coordination, with puberty introducing hormonal changes that bring about sexual maturity. Social-emotional development includes the ability to regulate emotions, build relationships, and develop empathy. Adolescents also begin to explore their sense of identity, influenced by interactions with peers, family, and societal expectations. These changes highlight the need for supportive environments that foster healthy physical and emotional growth. In cognitive and metacognitive domains, learners demonstrate enhanced problem-solving, critical thinking, and abstract reasoning. They become more self-aware, learning to plan, monitor, and evaluate their thinking processes. Creativity flourishes as they explore innovative ideas and imaginative expression, while ethical understanding deepens through exposure to societal norms and values. Together, these capabilities reflect a holistic development process that requires nurturing social, cultural, and educational environments to maximize their potential.

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