Chapter 9 - Stress and Conflict PDF

CHAPTER 9 {#chapter-9 dir="ltr"} ========= Stress and Conflict {#stress-and-conflict dir="ltr"} ------------------- Discuss Describe Define Examine Identify IAP the the the intraindividual individual meaning effects extraorganizational, of of dispositions stress stress. and interactive of org...

CHAPTER 9 {#chapter-9 dir="ltr"} ========= Stress and Conflict {#stress-and-conflict dir="ltr"} ------------------- Discuss Describe Define Examine Identify IAP the the the intraindividual individual meaning effects extraorganizational, of of dispositions stress stress. and interactive of organizational, stress. conflict. and group stressors. part tive Even interaction given going Traditionally, can examines tion. Present be levels presents though to from treated effective the of are strategies micro they causes the conflict. the together. more field ways negotiation © to are associated of macro, for conceptually Next, of stress. Therefore, of coping/managing organizational coping/managing 2021 the the PROOFS skills This with and discussion effects this is conflict. for similar, conflict, followed chapter resolving behavior of stress stress starts and stress at combines by the individuals, conflict. and and has off both and individual treated negotiation with conflict the conflict stress the intraindividual stress groups, are (intraindividual) meaning and with skills examined, and conflict. and particular conflict for of organizations and conflict stress Conceptually and the separately level, emphasi and the interac- resolu- fina the the i n y n s l ,. THE EMERGENCE OF STRESS {#the-emergence-of-stress dir="ltr"} ======================= A leading expert on stress, cardiologist Robert Eliot gives the following prescription fo r dealing with stress: "Rule No. 1 is, don't sweat the small stuff. Rule No. 2 is, it's all smal l stuff. And if you can't fight and you can't flee, flow." What is happening in today's orga nizations, however, is that the "small stuff" is getting to employees, and they are not goin g with the "flow." Stress has become a major buzzword and legitimate concern of the times. Contemporary Environment Demands {#contemporary-environment-demands dir="ltr"} -------------------------------- There is considerable evidence that many managers and employees report feelin g work-related stress and a recent survey from Towers Watson, the global professional ser vices firm, found that 30% of U.S. workers claimed to have high levels of workplac e stress, 1 and the recent environment is making things worse. For example, globalization an d strategic alliances have led to a dramatic increase in executive travel stress2 and reloca tion, 3 then there is 24/7 technology (e.g. tablets, laptops, and smartphones) keeping peopl e EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 7/2/2022 3:39 PM via LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY AT SHREVEPORT AN: 2527726 ; Fred Luthans.; Organizational Behavior: An Evidence-Based Approach Fourteenth Edition Account: s3563253.main.eds constantly leashed to their job, and of course there's the specter of massive job losse s looming in today's volatile economic environment. For example, on stress scales, peopl e rank losing their job the eighth most stressful life experience, behind the death of a spous e (No. 1), or going to jail (No. 4), but ahead of the death of a close friend (No. 17), foreclo sure on a mortgage or loan (No. 21) or in-law troubles (No. 24).4 Besides these external pressures, much of the stress comes from within. As one exper t notes, "Too much stress from heavy demands, poorly defined priorities, and little on-the job flexibility can add to health issues. By leaving stress unaddressed, employers invite a n increase in unscheduled time off, absence rates, and health care costs." 5 Increased work hours resulting from 24/7 technology and competitive pressures ar e also taking a toll on today's employees. Recent surveys indicate that a vast majority o f employees work frequently after regular hours and reported their employer does not allo w them to balance their work and personal life. 6 A growing number meet the definition of a half ter Denmark lows:8 The "workaholic"---a care \$150 Being Having Having Looking Exhibiting and Skipping Sending This of estimated costs, billion those some stressful the and difficulty an IAPP and e-mails tired; lunch; a in worse last only attitude excessive year, costs the potential one compulsive and workplace 2% United from than and of delegating; in consistent in such the perfectionism; the the home Cambodia. legal States office; United warning workaholism, is need highly in ramifications with described the to ©2 States. 9 work signs ROOFS evenings depression In variable the at in For of themselves competitive the terms (disabilities such around or example, or expense later; 021 problems exhaustion. of the lost as global a of world, "thriving" and Gallup productivity, everything have economy wage-and-hour with world been compared some else identified poll workplace increased countries in found one's claims) to 83% as healt stres abou life. bet- fol- i i h n 7 s s t is common in the major economic powers, but may take different forms. For example, a cross-cultural study comparing U.S. and Chinese employees found the Americans reporte d significantly more lack of job control, direct interpersonal conflict, anger, frustration, feel ing overwhelmed, and stomach problems, but their Chinese counterparts had relativel y more stress from job evaluations, work mistakes, indirect conflict, employment conditions , and lack of training. 10 Even the French are feeling the pressure. At the big automake r Renault outside of Paris, in a recent five-month period three of its engineers killed them selves. "In the suicide notes and conversations with their families before taking their lives , the three men voiced anxiety about unreasonable workloads, high pressure managemen t tactics, exhaustion, and humiliating criticism in front of colleagues during performanc e reviews." 11In other words, there seems to be a worldwide stress epidemic and seems to b e getting worse. What Stress Is, and Is Not {#what-stress-is-and-is-not dir="ltr"} -------------------------- Stress is usually thought of in negative terms. It is thought to be caused by somethin g bad (for example, a college student is placed on scholastic probation, a loved one is seri ously ill, or the boss gives a formal reprimand for poor performance). This is a form of dis tress. But there is also a positive, pleasant side of stress caused by good things (fo r example, a college student makes the dean's list; an attractive, respected acquaintance ask s for a date; an employee is offered a job promotion at another location). This is a form o f eustress. This latter term was coined by the pioneers of stress research from the Greek eu , which means "good." Applied to the workplace, a large study by researchers at Cornel l University of 1,800 managers identified examples of "bad" stress as office politics, re d tape, and a stalled career and "good" stress as challenges that come with increased jo b responsibility, time pressure, and high-quality assignments. 12A meta-analysis found tha t hindrance stressors (organizational politics, red tape, role ambiguity, and in general thos e demands unnecessarily thwarting personal growth and goal attainment) had a negativ e effect on motivation and performance. On the other hand, so-called challenge stressors (high workload, time pressure, high responsibility, and in general those demands that ar e positive presence being number response viewed is and example, energy," focused a stress-driven a Another In either deep other as and effect of which of to a obstacles sense mind, employees survey IAPP number many work-related neutral interested interesting words, on is dictionary. state emotionally of motivation peaceful a words found or stress-free well-being. of to a characterized energized. throughout different be completely who delineation to stress over overcome body The say." indicated and charged "flow" two-thirds 14 confirms ways feelings, word Based performance. 16 their On-the-job stress-free by ©2 involves Although in and ROOFS state stress a words a daily order on constant level increased that has this of characterized routines two has to stress U.S. been used challenging workplace 13 there evidence, of learn types sense also comfort and creative described 021 to may are and and been refer of of international numerous enhance one more by pressure energy---"tense is achieve) work and compared intelligence, to not low stress as eager something even the helps the muscle such and expert definitions were most ideal. employees to positive with anxiety, employees energy contribute." physical tension, found imprecise energy," observed, that Stress the levels. and and energy otherwis word to reporte vitality an remai can have whic "cal muc 15 wor "Th aler sin Fo b m in h h n d d e e a e r t , : viewed in a in the scientific "Both are short, would take debate about the meaning of job stress, 17 Ivancevich and Matteson define stress simply a s "the interaction of the individual with the environment," but then they go on to give a mor e detailed working definition, as follows: "an adaptive response, mediated by individual dif ferences and/or psychological processes, that is a consequence of any external (environ mental) action, situation, or event that places excessive psychological and/or physica l demands on a person." 18 Note the three critical components of this definition: (1) it refer s to a reaction to a situation or event, not the situation or event itself; (2) it emphasizes tha t stress can be impacted by individual differences; and (3) it highlights the phrase "excessiv e psychological and/or physical demands," because only special or unusual situations (a s opposed to minor life adjustments) can really be said to produce stress. 19 In another definition, Beehr and Newman define job stress as "a condition arisin g from the interaction of people and their jobs and characterized by changes within peopl e that force them to deviate from their normal functioning." 20 Taking these two definition s and simplifying them for the purpose of this chapter, stress is defined as an adaptiv e response to an external situation that results in physical, psychological, and/or behaviora l deviations for organizational participants. It is also important to point out what stress is not: 1. Stress is not simply anxiety. Anxiety operates solely in the emotional and psychologi- cal sphere, whereas stress operates there and also in the physiological sphere. Thus , stress may be accompanied by anxiety, but the two should not be equated. 2. Stress is not simply nervous tension. Like anxiety, nervous tension may result fro m stress, but the two are not the same. Unconscious people have exhibited stress, an d some people may keep it "bottled up" and not reveal it through nervous tension. 3. Stress is not necessarily something damaging, bad, or to be avoided. Eustress is no t damaging or bad and is something people should seek out rather than avoid. The key , - f course, is how the person handles the stress. Stress is inevitable; distress may b e prevented or can be effectively controlled. 21 ponents. problem burnout your will ter John In ity area and ers fact, or to contend burnout As help shows work." Izzo, behavior cope far Christina may 23 of you One a as IAPP that the with that as He former be with the follows, people flaws burnout stress the burnout goes stress that increasingly Maslach, stress---but employee consequence that HR in burnout on and themselves begins "Stress which is is professional "as to trauma not a say a type a to well-known creates necessarily result to popular organizations it is that relate will let of of support normal but ©2 "losing stress22 "Getting us of a often in ROOFS of differently term sense extensive down, the the and coordinator the stress not a "burnout" occupational and social of can result often more sense then help isolation others researcher, simply study, to environment quite we balance 021 of of you others makes individual the is treat may it change and with healthy. concerned, development basic is and or be it says believed the a burnout."25 as feeling getting to on purpose in people distinction having problems However, the their the which some opposite that of more road work. area, or a and lost people Research number burnout get stress such between when to personal control, fulfillment 27 suggests rid burnout."24 is Burnout as research- work." probabl of the of charac- is in them stres caus- com- not abil- tim tha thi 26 o i y a e s s s f t. true. She concludes What About Burnout? {#what-about-burnout dir="ltr"} ------------------- ### She believes {#she-believes dir="ltr"} ing the burned-out also most closely associated with the so-called helping professions such as nursing, educa tion, and social work. So, even though technically burnout may be somewhat differen t from stress, the two terms will be treated the same here and used interchangeably. Finally, conceptually similar to stress is conflict. Although there is some overlap i n analyzing the causes and effects and managing stress and conflict, they are both covered i n this chapter. The major difference, except for intraindividual conflict, is that conflict in th e field of organizational behavior is more associated with disagreement or opposition at th e interpersonal or intergroup level. After examining stressors, these levels of conflict ar e given attention. THE CAUSES OF STRESS {#the-causes-of-stress dir="ltr"} ==================== The antecedents of stress, or the so-called stressors, affecting today's employees are sum marized in Figure 9.1. As shown, these causes come from both outside and inside the orga nization, from the groups that employees are influenced by and from employee s themselves. [FIGURE ]{dir="ltr"}[. ]{dir="ltr"}[9.1 ]{dir="ltr"} Categories of Stressors Affecting Occupational Stress {#categories-of-stressors-affecting-occupational-stress dir="ltr"} ----------------------------------------------------- ### Extraorganizational {#extraorganizational dir="ltr"} #### Stressors {#stressors dir="ltr"} Organizational Stressors {#organizational-stressors dir="ltr"} ------------------------ ### Group Stressors {#group-stressors dir="ltr"} ### Individual {#individual dir="ltr"} #### Stressors {#stressors-1 dir="ltr"} JOB {#job dir="ltr"} === STRESS {#stress dir="ltr"} ------ the open-systems events, Extraorganizational external Although it is IAPP becoming environment), perspective most analyses increasingly of it an is of clear Stressors organization job clear ©2 that stress ROOFS job that ignore (that stress these is, is the have 021 the not importance organization limited a tremendous just of to is outside greatly impact. things that affected forces Taking happe an b a y n n d inside the organization, during working hours. In fact, one research study found that stress ors outside the workplace were related to negative affect and feelings on the job. 28 Extraorganizational stressors include things such as societal/technological change , globalization, the family, relocation, economic and financial conditions, race and gender , and residential or community conditions. The phenomenal rate of change and economic turbulence, which is given detaile d attention in the introductory chapters, has had a great effect on people's lifestyles, and thi s of course is carried over into their jobs. Although medical science has increased the lif e spans of people and has eradicated or reduced the threat of many diseases, the pace of mod ern living has increased stress and decreased personal wellness. The concept of wellnes s has been defined as "a harmonious and productive balance of physical, mental, and socia l well-being brought about by the acceptance of one's personal responsibility for developin g and adhering to a health promotion program." 29 Because people tend to get caught up in th e rush-rush, mobile, urbanized, crowded, on-the-go lifestyle of today, their anxiety30 an d wellness in general has deteriorated; the potential for stress on the job has increased. Ther e is considerable evidence that "Balancing concern for one's health with effortful striving i s essential to sustained, long-term achievement. Conversely, the failure to attend to one' s health places an executive at risk of failure, and in the extreme, of death." 31 It is generally recognized that a person's family has a big impact on one's stress level. A family situation---either a brief crisis, such as a squabble or the illness of a family mem ber, or long-term strained relations with parents, spouse, or children---can act as a signifi cant stressor for employees. Also, recent trends have made it increasingly difficult fo r employees to adequately balance the responsibilities of their jobs and their families. A s employees are working longer hours and bringing more work home at night,32 more an d more pressure is being placed on work-family relationships33 and more emphasis on th e coordination of work and vacation schedules, and the search for elder and child car e options has become prominent and very stressful.34 Relocating the family because of a transfer or a promotion can also lead to stress. Fo r example, under globalization, expatriate managers (those with an assignment outside thei r home country) may undergo cultural shock and then when repatriated (relocated to th e home country) may experience isolation; both are significant stressors. 35 For most peopl e poorer people, been related rewards have mance. in lack degree ors. or activities. force sudden She recent female---usually says, Life's Sociological-demographic As of forced a in very the of issues changes and One fit or order the years, "During The life between promotions, changes subsequent IAPP medical to stressful psychologist, workforce to include overall changes take their have make the is may a themselves researchers financial impact been second incapable effect first differences health. ends and and becomes be Faye three portrayed perceptions slow meet. the on on job situation These variables employees have and Crosby, of people. subsequent months (getting ("moonlight"), increasingly This in focusing ©2 the verified in life beliefs ROOFS has 36 by situation novels organization. reports after such changes older) They is minority also on health more and that a as work." diverse and proved spouse found that or or reduces race values, especially can stress 021 movies sudden of the employees divorce 38 37 and the a walks also to (see spouse Researchers definite on time be differences gender person. (the as directly their sudden Chapter a greatly out, having stressor. for has of death relationship primary can the recreational either The had life influence interferes have a 2), in other of also Many dramatic to more changes discrimination opportunities a potential jobs. enter become spouse). noted spouse---mal between people change, job with and the do effect over perfor- famil stress- stress- in work- Thes work hav fac th th th fo o o y n e e e e e e r r t. years that minorities may have more stressors than whites. 39 Although a review of evi dence concluded that women experience more stress than men, 40 an earlier meta-analysi s performed on 15 studies found no significant sex differences in experienced and perceive d work stress. 41 There continues to be evidence that women perceive more job demands tha n men in both the male-dominated and female-dominated occupations. 42 Also, people in th e middle and upper classes may have particular or common stressors. The same is true of th e local community or region that one comes from. For example, one researcher identified th e condition of housing, convenience of services and shopping, neighborliness, and degree o f noise and air pollution as likely stressors. 43 With globalization adding to the cultural diver sity of recent times, there is also recent research evidence suggesting that identical conflic t episodes are perceived differently across cultures (in this case the United States an d Japan).44 Thus, not only must race and gender be considered in analyzing extraorganiza tional stressors, but also the country culture and economic system. 45 Organizational Stressors {#organizational-stressors-1 dir="ltr"} ------------------------ Besides the potential stressors that occur outside the organization, there are also thos e associated with the organization itself. Although the organization is made up of groups o f individuals, there are also more macrolevel dimensions, unique to the organization, tha t contain potential stressors. 46 Figure 9.2 shows that these macrolevel stressors can be cate gorized into administrative policies and strategies, organizational structure and design , organizational processes, and working conditions. Some specific examples of more spe cific job stressors especially related to performance includes role ambiguity, conflict an d overload, job insecurity, work-family conflict, environmental uncertainty, and situationa l constraints. A meta-analysis found each of these to be negatively related to job perfor mance. 47 As organizations dramatically change to meet the environmental challenges outline d in the introductory chapters (globalization, economic turbulence, and diversity), there ar e more and more accompanying stressors for individual employees in their jobs. As recentl y described, organizations today must be fast, agile, and responsive; they must quickl y respond to an ever-changing environment, constantly reinventing themselves. 48 For exam jobs, ple, Additionally, the In ing, iors. least commonplace environment. Group other fear a in 51 one or study particular, Research of even words, major Stressors future by IAPP 10 the Programs the team's as Deloitte can change downsizing indicates indicates cuts, has the mere "survivors" also typical result taken the intervention threat and be such that the loss a and of Touche often meeting: potential as of of tremendous intense such of continues reengineering, being downsizing friends translates in chronic found ©2 their pressures source ROOFS laid and to that influence business off, occupational take to "often colleagues, of restructuring, 84% longer can to stress. its outperform toll of be experience strategy 021 that hours U.S. extremely Here on demands and the employees. companies in and and is an group order the how tremendous increase downsizing more stressful can competition. has one to 49 were lead stress compete on The member in for to behavior. work-load." pressure undergoing have actual for stress. employees in Downsiz- the recentl becom today' loss 52 surv- fro Th o m 50 a y e e s f t. #### Chapter {#chapter dir="ltr"} group or team described her The people are loyal and competent but very slow to make proactive changes. They als o have a hard time with conflict so that issues go unaddressed for years. When I sit in staf f meetings, we may be talking about a budget issue or a marketing topic but the rea l underlying issue seems to be two warring managers or an old conflict being rehashed. 53 Unfortunately, sometimes these interpersonal conflicts in a group end up in a "bully ing" problem. This is only a recently recognized problem. Different from sexual harass ment or incivility, bullying is defined as "repeated, health-harming mistreatment that coul d involve verbal abuse, threatening, humiliating, or offensive behavior or actions; or wor k interference." 54 Obviously, bullying leads to tremendous stress for a victim and even thos e who witness this problem. More generally, group stressors can be categorized into tw o areas: 1\. Lack of group cohesiveness. Since the historically famous Hawthorne studies, dis cussed in Chapter 1, it has become very clear that cohesiveness, or "togetherness," i s very important to employees, especially at the lower levels of organizations. If a n employee is denied the opportunity for this cohesiveness because of the task design , because the supervisor does things to prohibit or limit it, or because the other mem [FIGURE ]{dir="ltr"}[. ]{dir="ltr"}[9.2 ]{dir="ltr"} Macrolevel Organizational Stressors {#macrolevel-organizational-stressors dir="ltr"} ----------------------------------- ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES AND STRATEGIES {#administrative-policies-and-strategies dir="ltr"} ====================================== Downsizing {#downsizing dir="ltr"} ---------- Competitive pressures Merit pay plans Rotating work shifts Bureaucratic rules {#bureaucratic-rules dir="ltr"} ================== Advanced technology {#advanced-technology dir="ltr"} ------------------- ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND DESIGN {#organizational-structure-and-design dir="ltr"} =================================== Centralization and formalization Line-staff conflicts {#line-staff-conflicts dir="ltr"} -------------------- ### Specialization {#specialization dir="ltr"} IAPP Noise, No Polluted Punitive Role Restrictive, Little Unsafe, Lack Physical Tight Poor Only Crowded Centralized Toxic Strong ORGANIZATIONAL opportunity WORKING ambiguity of lighting performance controls downward chemicals odor heat, participation dangerous appraisal air or work untrusting mental decision or and cold area for CONDITIONS or communication systems feedback strain conditions advancement radiation conflict in making ©2 culture PROCESSES decisions ROOFS 021 JOB STRESS bers of the group shut the person out, the resulting lack of cohesiveness can be ver y stress producing. 2\. Lack of social support. Employees are greatly affected by the support of one or mor e members of a cohesive group. By sharing their problems and joys with others, the y are much better off. If this type of social support is lacking for an individual, the situ ation can be very stressful. There is even research evidence indicating that the lack o f social support is so stressful that it accounts for some health care costs. 55 In addition to the group per se, group-level dynamics may become stressors. Fo r example, one study found that organizational politics was a potential source of stress in th e work environment56 and another study found social stressors such as conflicts wit h coworkers and supervisors and social dislikes or ill will of all kinds, over time, can lead t o depressive symptoms for the employees involved. 57 Individual Stressors: The Role of Dispositions {#individual-stressors-the-role-of-dispositions dir="ltr"} ---------------------------------------------- In a sense, the stressors discussed so far (extraorganizational, organizational, an d group) all eventually get down to the individual level. There is also more research an d agreement on possible situational dimensions and individual dispositions that may affec t stress outcomes. For example, individual dispositions such as Type A personality patterns , personal control, learned helplessness, and psychological hardiness may all affect the leve l of stress someone experiences. In addition, the intraindividual level of conflict stemmin g from frustration, goals, and roles, covered next under conflict, definitely has implication s as individual stressors. ### Type A Characteristics {#type-a-characteristics dir="ltr"} particularly heart recent resulting tered ism, istics, guity, differences correlated sonalities 1960s Although The rigidity, on disease and Friedman anxiety, years, the discussion behavior in highly initially in, relevant IAPP that so-called the are than extroversion, however, heart gives personality and study Type only and with anyone Friedman patterns the of researchers the to A Rosenman 12% Type personality A; of experienced individual majority need there reader stress. one else. were dispositions supportiveness, A in for and is study personality. a order have These of popularized increasing Type chance achievement stress. Rosenman's in Americans stress found ©2 Chapter to been B. ROOFS types and 58 predict to 60 and Most that working see evidence spontaneity, traits. were the 5 dangerous have whether are points 60% extensive attention heart use portrayed Type Personality on of been 021 of that out attacks the the he Type A, emotionality, physical the studies over uncovered Type or use managers and as complexity she A since the of traits relatively an and As found tends personality years, consequences. even face the opposing such sampled by tolerance to the higher however, 1950s, research of, no be stable as Type and higher a authoritarian- types were Type Type percentag in individua character- 59In for A as has the and clearl risk profil B A ambi- bein mor cen- per- or lat th o y g e e e e a e f l [Table ]{dir="ltr"}[9.1 ]{dir="ltr"} Type B personality. of managers Type A and Friedman and Rosenman define the Type A personality as "an action-emotion com plex that can be observed in any person who is aggressively involved in a chronic, inces sant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and if required to do so , against the opposing efforts of other things or other persons." 61 Table 9.2 briefly summa rizes the Type A and Type B profiles. Obviously Type A employees (managers, salesper sons, staff specialists, secretaries, or rank-and-file operating employees) experienc e considerable stress. They are the ones who: 1. Work long, hard hours under constant deadline pressures and conditions for overload. 2. Often take work home at night or on weekends and are unable to relax. 3. Constantly compete with themselves, setting high standards of productivity that the y seem driven to maintain. 4. Tend to become frustrated by the work situation, to be irritated with the work effort s - f others, and to be misunderstood by supervisors. 62 Here is how one obviously Type A manager described her activities: 350 e-mails a day in my inbox... cell phone, and laptop constantly in tow. Check my Outlook calendar and see that I'm double- or triple-booked in meetings every hour, plu s [TABLE ]{dir="ltr"}[. ]{dir="ltr"}[9.1 ]{dir="ltr"} #### Type A and Type B Self-Test {#type-a-and-type-b-self-test dir="ltr"} To determine your Type A or Type B profile, circle the number on the continuum (the verbal descriptions represent endpoints) that best represents your behavior for each dimension. Am casual about appointments Am not competitive Never feel rushed, even under pressure Take things one at a time 2 3 1 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 4 5 3 4 2 3 1 2 2 3 1 2 4 5 3 4 5 6 8 6 7 6 7 7 8 7 8 5 6 8 4 5 3 4 4 5 5 6 8 6 7 6 7 7 8 7 8 Do things slowly Express feelings Have many interests Total your score: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Multiply it by 3: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. The interpretation of your score is as follows: Vol. Source: 22, 1966, Adapted pp. 87--91. from R. W. Bortner, "A Short Rating Scale as a ROOFS Personality: Potential A A B A B B Personalities Measure 021 of Pattern Type about B A time Profile Behavior," Journal of Chronic Diseases , 1 2 2 3 1 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 4 5 5 6 8 2 3 Number of Points: ##### Less than 90 90 to 99 100 to 105 106 to 119 120 or more {#less-than-90-90-to-99-100-to-105-106-to-119-120-or-more dir="ltr"} 4 5 3 4 3 4 5 6 8 6 7 6 7 7 8 7 8 5 6 8 4 5 6 7 7 8 Am never late Am very competitive Always feel rushed Try to do many things at once; think about what I am going to do next Do things fast (eating, walking, etc.) "Sit" on feelings Have few interests outside work Type of [TABLE ]{dir="ltr"} - Can't cope with leisure time - Is obsessed with numbers - Measures success by quantity - Is aggressive - Is competitive - Constantly feels under time pressure - Has no pressing deadlines - Is mild-mannered - Is never in a hurry a 7 A.M. global conference call. Being told by management that we cannot hire addi tional head count because of a hiring freeze, despite the hefty increase in responsibilit y for my team. 63 By contrast, as shown in Table 9.2, Type B personalities are very laid back, are patient , and take a very relaxed, low-key approach to life and their job. It is now accepted that Type As per se do not predict heart problems, and in fact Typ e As may release and better cope with their stress than do Type Bs. The more recent studie s indicate that it is not so much the impatience that is closely associated with Type As tha t leads to heart problems, but rather anger and hostility. 64 A leading medical researche r noted that the term "Type A" probably has outlived its usefulness. He stated: "Being a workaholic, being in a hurry, interrupting people, are not necessarily bad for your heart. What is bad is if you have high levels of hostility and anger, and you don't bother to hid e it when dealing with other people." 65 This conclusion was supported by an organizationa l psychiatrist who, after extensive study of the causes of stress in Japanese, German, an d American workers, concluded that "how workers handle their own aggression is the ke y factor in determining whether they will experience the kind of stress that can lead to hear t attacks, high blood pressure and other health problems." 66 However, before the relation ship of Type A to severe physical outcomes is completely dismissed, it should be noted tha t anger, hostility, and aggression sometimes go along with a Type A personality. Besides the debate surrounding the impact of Type A personality on health is the ques tion of the performance and success of Type As versus Type Bs. It is pretty clear that Typ e perception unable who Personal As key ment their than those chance employees feelings stress. perform may Besides Type are work and workers In and to about not be particular, be over Bs. of are unwilling stress. better67 IAPP Control to overly Type involved control. their given However, who shift their 70 A ability ambitious, and A experience if from a personality own to As sense employees large in make are mentioned at the Type job, to the typically of study control decision-making the are control they very a A patterns, shift loss feel more to by ©2 in will top a on Type that Cornell ROOFS situation and/or of over Chapter a patient, they experience control, "fast another they B their to behavior, do University process track" 5's are have cope and work not important especially discussion important 021 take tend stress. little with to environment, that but, the a to medical their control 69 broader top. affects of be disposition in in on Studies course, Type as relatively determining They job over successful researchers them, view such satisfaction, A are have most the characteristics. is as more of this low-level an work shown being things. their Type as individual' will found successfu Type people' environ- level given reduc As 68 that jobs Th tha Bs ar o i e a e e s s f f t l , , have triple the risk of developing high blood pressure. The researchers concluded that lac k of control turns stress into physical problems. They also found that if a high-stress jo b included latitude to control the situation, there was no increase in blood pressure. 71 A stud y in a hospital setting also found that employee perceptions of the amount of control the y experience at work relate to stress, which in turn affects physiological outcomes such a s blood pressure as well as psychological outcomes such as job satisfaction. 72 Another stud y found that job control has an impact on stress and strain if the employee perceives organi zational justice. 73 In other words, it may not be job control per se, but the employee's per ception of fairness that has the resulting impact on stress. #### Learned Helplessness {#learned-helplessness dir="ltr"} The feeling of loss of control goes back to some of the classic research on learne d helplessness conducted by Seligman. 74 Chapter 7 introduced this concept in relation t o optimism. In conducting experiments on dogs who could not escape shock, Seligma n found that they eventually accepted it and did not even try to escape. Later, when the dog s could learn to escape easily, they did not---they had learned to be helpless. Other studie s found that people, too, can learn to be helpless, 75 which helps explain why some employ ees just seem to have given up and seem to accept stressors in their work environment, eve n when a change for the better is possible. More recently, Seligman and his colleagues have concentrated on people's attribution s for their lack of control. Specifically, they suggest that people are most apt to experienc e helplessness when they perceive the causes of the lack of control: 1. To be related to something about their own personal characteristics (as opposed t o - utside, environmental forces) 2. As stable and enduring (rather than just temporary) 3. To be global and universal (cutting across many situations, rather than in just on e sphere of life)76 people particular both Psychological than Further in involved of stressors the stress-related Kobasa Everyone measurably stability face seem study seem in will of IAPP what the to and to was extremely and provide has to resist go future illness hardy they have her She normal); research Hardiness to observed drawn pieces stress colleagues were suggests demand a much and and stressful "hardiness" and nonhardy. by from doing); on were at individual insight providing the the more feeling that hardiness studied situations. characterized slightest sense welcoming ©2 into the disposition. and ROOFS She in differences predisposition of buffers stress executives more control found provocation, may control Those challenge and from as between be that (they having able how 021 in an of under the their general people felt important to of to whereas hardy (they themselves commitment cope employees they cope psychological considerable and faced believed executives could successfully with others quality learned with it. and at influence (they that seem all stress as stressors. had hardiness stressors. helplessness levels. change organization with became unflappabl a who the lower extrem As event rathe Som help wer ver rat ha i y n e e e e e s s s s r around them).77 those with it Such buffering now and in been noted: Why does the job seem so demanding? It isn't just long hours or clumsy direction fro m above, though there's plenty of that. All sorts of pressure, from the stress of participa tory management techniques to the hyperkinesia of two-career marriages to the dismay of finding your workload increasing as you near 50, just when you thought you coul d adopt a more dignified pace, are working together to squeeze the oomph from hereto fore steely-eyed achievers. 78 Kobasa's research would say that those with hardiness will be able to survive and eve n thrive in such an environment, but those who do not possess hardiness may suffer th e harmful outcomes of stress and conflict. As concluded by the closely related "toughness " researchers in positive psychology, "once an individual becomes tough and thereby expe riences the sustained energy (with minimal tension) necessary for successful coping, tha t person is likely to experience a greater variety of situations as challenging rather tha n threatening." 79 Also from the positive organizational behavior literature, in Chapter 7 i t was mentioned that Avey, Luthans, and Jensen recently found that there was a significan t negative relationship between employees' psychological capital and their reported level s of stress. 80 In other words, employees may be able to draw from their positive psycholog ical resources (i.e., efficacy, hope, optimism, resiliency, and overall psychological capital ) in order to combat the stressors that they face at work. INTRAINDIVIDUAL CONFLICT {#intraindividual-conflict dir="ltr"} ======================== Although stress and conflict are treated differently, they are combined in this one chapte r mainly because of the conceptual similarity between individual dispositional stressors an d intraindividual conflict. After presenting the intraindividual forms of conflict in terms o f frustration, goals, and roles, some more macro interactive conflict models are briefl y reviewed as shown in Figure 9.3. physical) backs, behavior. because useful workplace goal. crimes, cides aggressive Conflict Frustration Defense by Figure in and as of "associates"---current the or Theft a noted theft outcome fewer IAPP covert analysis form Due 9.4 mechanisms occurs of of that illustrates homicides of office company (inward, to to of displaced even when job not Frustration equipment actually though frustration. only what in or a property motivated places and mental-sociopsychological). aggression behavior happens. on-the-job former on ©2 and like and ROOFS For the retail drive in taxis coworkers, even example, (e.g., upswing The general killings is items and barrier violence blocked fictitious convenience 021 but meant since a have customers, summary may also before on sales 1997. dropped for The specific the be sales a transactions, job either 81 article frustration stores. person and In in to may aspects clients---are addition, recent overt customers), on Workplace reaches be violence model of a (outward, years, illegal form on-the-jo employe a desire can is this homi- in of kick- als th b a o i b n o d e e e s r on the rise. 82 [FIGURE ]{dir="ltr"}[. ]{dir="ltr"}[9.3 ]{dir="ltr"} Level of Conflict Macro {#macro dir="ltr"} ----- Micro {#micro dir="ltr"} ----- CONFLICT {#conflict dir="ltr"} ======== [FIGURE ]{dir="ltr"}[. ]{dir="ltr"}[9.4 ]{dir="ltr"} Need (deficiency) A Model of Frustration {#a-model-of-frustration dir="ltr"} ---------------------- Drive (deficiency with direction) {width="302" height="146"} #### Frustration {#frustration dir="ltr"} 1. Overt 2. Covert (reduction of the drives and fulfillment of deficiencies) {#deficiencies dir="ltr"} ------------- negative Although variables there interactional incidence aggressive form fairness),86 There of is aggression research such affectivity, of self-reported is IAPP cultures) and increasing aggression justice as there stress evidence may and/or account is attitudes reaction a concern incidences depend depended study that abusive for Defense (1) (3) (2) (4) that toward on individual and and this Aggression Fixation Withdrawal Compromise on the of ©2 violent control research supervision. ROOFS the workplace aggression, perception mechanisms revenge, perception differences crime correlated on aggression 84 83 aggression self-control, rates of 021 Another but organizational of with in (e.g., being so the and workplace do study trait are community victimized and situational violence a anger, justice reaction also previous aggression, found in of attribution by (i.e., factors the the to others. exposure personalit workplace frustration the workplac such and judge 85 style Th th a t y d o e e e s , ,. predicted the amount of reported aggression at that workplace. 87 Implementing a violence prevention policy and providing training to supervisors and employees in workplace-vio lence awareness seems to decrease the incidence rate for employee-on-employee vio lence. 88 In addition to aggression and violence, the withdrawal reaction to frustration may be a major explanation for the "motivational problem" of employees. They may be apathetic o r have "retired on the job" because they are frustrated, not because they have no motivation. Many employees' motives have been blocked by dead-end jobs, high degrees of job spe cialization, or supervisors who put up barriers. Similar to aggression there is research evi dence that both perceived organizational support89 and personality variables90 affect wha t manner and what type of withdrawal behaviors employees exhibit. The fixation reaction t o frustration may be used to explain irrational bureaucratic behavior. (The rules become th e ends in themselves, and the frustrated employee pathetically adapts to the barriers.) Com promise can help explain midcareer changes (frustrated employees go around the barriers ) or "living outside the job" (frustrated employees cannot achieve motivated goals on th e job, so they seek fulfillment outside the job). These reactions to frustration often cost orga nizations a great deal because of the dysfunctions associated with aggression, withdrawal , and fixation. In the case of compromise, the employee's motivation is forced outside th e organization. Although the discussion so far indicates the dysfunctional nature of frustra tion, such negativity should not be automatically assumed. In some cases frustration may actually result in a positive impact on individual perfor mance and organizational goals. An example is the worker or manager who has high need s for competence and achievement and/or who has high self-efficacy (see Chapter 7's dis cussion) in being able to do a job well. A person of this type who is frustrated on the job may react in a traditional defensive manner, but the frustration may result in improved per formance. The person may try harder to overcome the barrier or may overcompensate, o r the new direction or goal sought may be more compatible with the organization's goals. I n addition, one research study found stress and strain levels were lower for participants wit h high self-efficacy than for those with lower self-efficacy. 91 Once again, it should be remembered that defense mechanisms per se are not bad fo r the individual. They play an important role in the psychological adjustment process and ar e blocked unhealthy redesign major that that For leadership or cessfully and an enced Goal find adverse ease negative Another "venting" are it, goal substitute Conflict before or or of efforts overcome only skills will of than affect analysis, IAPP features, common management (an when the be those that (see goals on emotional goal frustrating frustration three get they performance Chapter who or source are is the two reached, dominate separate have should more frustrating reaction or of to 6) in more experienced conflict employees. the tolerant that be and in types the ©2 past to goal competing are of ROOFS amplified individual's barriers eliminate expressing by of for of more conflict goal learning frustration excesses an This out individual compatible conflict goals. the the goal two of personality. 021 one's that barriers negativity. in people's or than may Whereas frustration. it are more negative is is with those be generally possible a (imagined, motives goal way. accomplished 92 Also, in employee who However, frustration feelings There that to those identified: have block surmount has real, is who motivation to also never both in one or through motives others) general, potential have evidenc another positiv barrier experi- suc- jo ha ar o b a e e e s r s ). 1. Approach-approach conflict, where the individual is motivated to approach two o r more positive but mutually exclusive goals. 2. Approach-avoidance conflict, where the individual is motivated to approach a goa l and at the same time is motivated to avoid it. The single goal contains both positiv e and negative characteristics for the individual. 3\. Avoidance-avoidance conflict, where the individual is motivated to avoid two or mor e negative but mutually exclusive goals. To varying degrees, each of these forms of goal conflict exists in the modern organization , but approach-avoidance is most relevant to the analysis of conflict. Approach-avoidance conflict results from organizational goals having both positiv e and negative aspects for organizational participants. Basic research in psychology suggest s that the positive aspects of a given organizational goal are stronger and more salient at a distance (in time and/or space) than the negative aspects. On the other hand, as a perso n gets nearer to the goal, the negative aspects become more pronounced, and at some poin t the individual may hesitate or fail to progress any further at the point where approac h equals avoidance. For example, managers engaged in long-range planning typically ar e very confident of a goal (a strategic plan) they have developed for the future. Yet, as th e time gets near to commit resources and implement the plan, the negative consequence s seem to appear much greater than they did in the developing stage. Managers in such a sit uation may reach the point where approach equals avoidance. The result is a great deal o f internal conflict and stress, which may cause indecision, physical reactions, or eve n depression. Such approach-avoidance conflict and its aftermath are very common among decisio n makers and people in responsible positions in today's organizations described in the intro ductory comments. As noted in a cover story of Fortune, "To the survivors, the revolutio n feels something like this: scary, guilty, painful, liberating, disorienting, exhilarating , empowering, frustrating, fulfilling, confusing, challenging." 93 In other words, as thes e terms indicate, many managers in recent years have been experiencing very mixed feel ings, or approach-avoidance reactions. bring into the behavior the clerk, team leader, salesperson, engineer, systems analyst, department head, vice president , and chairperson of the board often carry conflicting demands and expectations. There i s research evidence that such conflict can have a negative impact on well-being95 and perfor mance and may be affected by cultural differences. 96 For example, in a study of CEOs i n international joint ventures, it was found that role conflict was lower when the foreign part ner was dominant in the venture, but higher when the local parent was dominant. Role con flict was inversely related to cultural distance. 97 There are three major types of role conflict. One type is the conflict between the per son and the role. There may be conflict between the person's personality and the expecta tions of the role. For example, a production worker and member of the union is appointe d to head up a new production team. This new team leader may not really believe in keepin g close control over the workers, and it goes against this individual's personality to be hard nosed, but that is what the head of production expects. A second type is intrarole conflic t created by contradictory expectations about how a given role should be played. Should th e new team leader be autocratic or democratic in dealing with the team members? Finally , interrole conflict results from the differing requirements of two or more roles that must b e played at the same time. Work roles and nonwork roles are often in such conflict. Fo r example, a successful executive working for a computer company said that she ofte n worked from 7:30 A.M. to 11:30 P.M. 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You get so far into it, you don' t even realize your life has gotten away from you completely." 98 The production team leader and the fast-climbing executive obviously represent th e extreme cases of organizational role conflict. Yet to varying degrees, depending on th e individual and the situation, people in every other position in the modern organization als o experience one or all three types of role conflict. Staff engineers are not sure of their rea l authority. The clerk in the front office does not know whether to respond to a union-orga nizing drive. The examples are endless. The question is not whether role conflict and ambi guity exist---they do, and they seem inevitable. 99 Rather, the key becomes a matter o f determining how role conflict can be resolved or managed. 100 propose problem bute rized tive tion Besides interpersonal or attribution INTERACTIVE Interpersonal personality. aspects Those is others' as specifically follows: the that or theory who defect intraindividual of IAPP behavior there and conflict Whetten have intergroup on in are concerned CONFLICT the the to Conflict interpersonal four are personal other and so-called major also aspects levels Cameron, party. with an sources factors important fundamental of in analyzing conflict ©2 For today's conflict ROOFS however, example, such of interpersonal most dynamic as the organizations. that attribution intelligence, often interactive go as are 021 discussed beyond of closely attribute organizational conflict.101These error conflict ability, this related in the suggests Chapter surface cause motivation, to that behavior. stress, that 6, can explanation to can research a people result the personalit be attitudes This summa- interac- at attri- fro sec- an th m y d e , 1. Personal differences.Everyone has a unique background because of his or he r upbringing, cultural and family traditions, and socialization processes. Because n o one has the same family background, education, and values, the differences can be a major source of conflict. Disagreements stemming from the differences "ofte n become highly emotional and take on moral overtones. A disagreement about who i s factually correct easily turns into a bitter argument over who is morally right."102 2. Information deficiency. This source of conflict results from communication break down in the organization. It may be that the two people in conflict are using differen t information or that one or both have misinformation. Unlike personal differences, thi s source of conflict is not emotionally charged and once corrected, there is little resent ment. 3\. Role incompatibility. This type of interpersonal conflict draws from both intraindivid ual role conflict (discussed in the previous section) and intergroup conflict (discusse d in the next section). Specifically, in today's horizontal organizations, managers hav e functions and tasks that are highly interdependent. However, the individual roles o f these managers may be incompatible. For example, the production manager and th e sales manager have interdependent functions: one supports the other. However, a major role of the production manager is to cut costs, and one way to do this is to keep inventories low. The sales manager, on the other hand, has a dominant role of increas ing revenues through increased sales. The sales manager may make delivery promise s to customers at are incompatible with the low inventory levels maintained by produc tion. The resulting conflict from role incompatibility may have to be resolved b y higher-level management or systems development through advanced informatio n technology. 4\. Environmental stress. These types of conflict can be amplified by a stressful environ ment. In environments characterized by scarce or shrinking resources, downsizing , competitive pressures, or high degrees of uncertainty, conflict of all kinds will b e more probable. "For example, when a major pet-food manufacturing facilit y announced that one-third of its managers would have to support a new third shift, th e feared disruption of personal and family routines prompted many managers to thin k about sending out their résumés. In addition, the uncertainty of who was going to b e required to work at night was so great that even routine management work was dis preceding, but bad. near ness); interaction. indicating ing One (uncooperative, (assertive, increasing rupted In way For project and addition example, to the (5) it by 106 IAPP analyze deadlines; is collaborating complexity uncooperative); posturing levels useful to to unassertive); Behavior one identifying interpersonal their of about to study and process and analyze confronting of intergroup (cooperative, (3) found interindividual infighting." (4) some (2) moderate conflict; and (which the compromising accommodating the ©2 of dynamics others ROOFS following the conflict Conflict includes 103 (2) assertive).104 levels major and is low through of for intragroup profile of sources levels intragroup) (between individuals a (unassertive, task 021 number the Like of of conflict of relationship high-performing response conflict,105 assertiveness interpersonal role of conflict, interacting years. cooperative); at conflict, the categories social Intergroup conflict, and midpoint with and conflict there it teams: psychologist is cooperative- one (3) of not is with behavio avoidin of researc (1) as another (1) alway group in a forc- lo ris th w h g e e s r s. Intergroup {#intergroup dir="ltr"} ---------- ### In addition {#in-addition dir="ltr"} have been concerned is even specifically identified as follows: "Intergroup behavior occurs whenever individu als belonging to one group interact, collectively or individually, with another group or it s members in terms of their reference group identification." 107 Several antecedent conditions have been identified for explaining intergroup conflict. These can be summarized as follows:108 1. Competition for resources. Most organizations today have very limited resources. Groups within the organization vie for budget funds, space, supplies, personnel, an d support services. 2. Task interdependence. If two groups in the organization depend on one another in a mutual way or even a one-way direction (as in a sequential technological process) , there tends to be more conflict than if groups are independent of one another. Th e more diverse the objectives, priorities, and personnel of the interdependent group s (for example, research and operations), the more conflict there tends to be. 3. Jurisdictional ambiguity. This may involve "turf" problems or overlapping responsi- bilities. For example, conflict might occur when one group attempts to assume mor e control or take credit for desirable activities, or give up its part and any responsibilit y for undesirable activities. 4\. Status struggles. This conflict occurs when one group attempts to improve its statu s and another group views this as a threat to its place in the status hierarchy. One grou p may also feel it is being inequitably treated in comparison with another group of equa l status in terms of rewards, job assignments, working conditions, privileges, or statu s symbols. Human resources departments justifiably often feel they are treated inequi tably in relation to marketing, finance, and operations departments. Groups in conflict behave differently from smoothly cooperating groups. Here is a real-world example: A division of Litton Industries needed to integrate West and East Coast operations i n order to provide customers a full spectrum of services. The West Coast group had been running call centers for 30-some years, were hard working, but resistant to change. Th e their to importance intragroup internally There ception emotional higher intergroup virtually taking East in Covert effectiveness. is of enterprise-wide recent perceptions that Coast disagreements perception cohesiveness of and IAPP sabotage the making no research could operation perceptions. communication degree 109 resolution specializations) care of technology of a was process evidence cost-benefit and intergroup was interpersonal of about less trust routinely negative For cobbled about systems112 consulting. decisions moderated or that example, that Litton unified conflict.111 ©2 analysis together relationships organization waged such eliminate ROOFS incompatibility).110 This culture made and, groups sense one the through by of East most Overall, relationship by study conflict the and of both in Coast across designs. the direction conflict tradition. 021 recent recently, conflict of group) sides most inherent group 70 groups acquisitions Another between top situation between to The change experts and setting was management dilute were in resulting relationship freewheeling, traditional both study task the at today up and significantly one any two conflict systems conflict internally specialize found another' emphasize level groups teams (i.e., conflict risk- lef and (the that throug d relate s hierar- t. and foun the per- lo (a th i w n n h n d d e setting up dispute advanced information chical and functional THE EFFECTS OF STRESS AND INTRAINDIVIDUAL CONFLICT {#the-effects-of-stress-and-intraindividual-conflict dir="ltr"} ================================================== As has been pointed out, stress and conflict are not automatically bad for individua l employees or their organizational performance. In fact, it is generally recognized that lo w levels of stress and conflict can even enhance job performance. For example, one stud y found that mild stress, such as getting a new supervisor or being involuntarily transferred , may have the positive result of an increased search for information in the job. 113 This ma y lead employees to new and better ways of doing their jobs. Also, mild stress may ge t employees' "juices" flowing and lead to increased activity, change, and overall better per formance. People in certain jobs, such as in sales or creative fields (for example, newspape r journalists and television announcers who work under time pressures), would seem to ben efit from a mild level of stress. People in other jobs, such as police officers or physicians , may not benefit from constant mild stress. Research is also emerging that indicates that the level of difficulty, the nature of th e task being performed, personal dispositions (such as Type A, personal control and learne d helplessness, and psychological hardiness, and psychological capital, discussed in previou s sections), other psychological dispositions (such as negative affectivity114), and neuroti cism115 may affect the relationship between stress and performance. However, it is stil l safe to conclude that: 1. The performance of many tasks is in fact strongly affected by stress. 2. Performance usually drops off sharply when stress rises to very high levels. 116 It is the dysfunctional effects of high levels of stress and conflict that should be and are a major concern for contemporary society in general and for effective human resource man agement in particular. The problems due to high levels of stress and conflict can be exhib ited physically, psychologically, or behaviorally by the individual. packed blood ual; rorism, headaches to that The death of constipation. as ability following Physical the heart stress not stress Most situation Obviously, rate first pressure to Wall the always disease include fight of worksheet is has employers and corporate IAPP the 60% 117 Street. Problems on on off back and so For can serious attention Wall the physical higher illness obvious, heart For example, have pain; following: for to scandals, Street physical install the than computing and on and disease; and health. but 5,000 has the Due basic heart the infection; a (4) and just defibrillator even organization. (1) ailments national people Specific gastrointestinal (3) research attacks the ©2 to as the immune worsened ROOFS musculoskeletal serious, extreme Stress costs (2) who from rate are physical cardiovascular over (used system of Ivancevich work a for are volatility stress in way replacing the and recent men to system the 021 at health years of restart problems, have the effects life between system Conflict years of and stock have problems, employees concerns (or system a the the drastic that Matteson death because heart problems, been market. exchange, where 18 physical problems, and in that effect by devoted such lost this there of 65, electric have have the to such as the case) on problems and is heart to provided diarrhea threat such the been heart a the shock).11 it as on lessene was individ- tensio diseas as impac stress- linke of attac suc hig an on ter- th k h n h d d d e e e 8 t in a company employing 4,000 people. 119 1. Number of employees 2. Men in age range 45 to 65 (0.25 line 1) 3. Estimated deaths due to heart disease per year (0.006line 2) 4. Estimated premature retirement due to heart problems per year (0.003line 2) 5. Company's annual personnel losses due to heart disorders (sum of lines 3 and 4) 6. Annual replacement cost: the average cost of hiring and training replacements for experienced employees (line 5 \$50,000) 7. Number of employees who will eventually die of heart disease if present rate continues (0.5 line 1) 4,000 1,000 6 3 9 \$450,000 2,000 These figures are just estimates, but they dramatically illustrate how heart diseas e alone can affect costs and sheer numbers of employees in a typical organization. Obvi ously, not all heart disease can be directly linked to stress; environmental conditions an d the person's general state of health, heredity, and medical history also certainly contribute. However, there seems to be enough evidence that stress can and does contribute to thi s dreaded disease and to other physical problems as well. Psychological Problems Due to Stress and Conflict {#psychological-problems-due-to-stress-and-conflict dir="ltr"} ------------------------------------------------- Although considerable attention has been given to the relationship between stress an d physical health, especially within the medical community, not as much has been given t o the impact of stress on mental health. Yet, at least indirectly if not directly, the psycholog ical problems resulting from stress may be just as important, if not more important, to day today job performance as the physical problems. High levels of stress may be accompanie d by anger, anxiety, depression, nervousness, irritability, tension, and boredom. One stud y found that stress had the strongest impact on aggressive actions, such as sabotage, interper sonal aggression, hostility, and complaints. 120 These types of psychological problems from stress, in turn, are especially relevant t o poor job performance, lowered self-esteem, 121 resentment of supervision, inability to con centrate and make decisions, and job dissatisfaction. 122 These outcomes of stress can hav e psychological back not who rent ment that that trol off." of claims. a effect direct self-esteem. to if they rates, reported Of are Such on under disturb on the 123 cost even under track the are number these managers Court IAPP effect the a styles not greater very them, that problems and "rotten constant In claims employer's living cases decisions. this of psychological disgusted on begin and even stress-related may significance, the personality," state have will effectiveness up stress have with organization. to also to they lead hate And, workers' also with the plummeted. important may realize, all may the expectations brought stress finally, such workers' the become other when ©2 job of also outcomes at compensation ROOFS For a managers information, is times, manager in claims, they stress-related 126 in procrastinate example, the very general. compensation fact of may source that of moody, 125 their the in and stress resent they in key 021 the Coworkers, because problems insurance. important explain an of problems National and positions. are and era numerous can their claims acting continue their when they have the boss are 124 position subordinates, Centers continues stemming behavior will subordinates For this health the a Experts job-related for subtle, to just example, result way; trying put for and care "bite to away are things from but they Disease of suffer grow benefits to and soon predictin stress your manager very insuranc get may as employ- off bosse at a bein the lear Con- hea real cur- los fee an an fo m n d g d d g e s s s r l , not make needed may become the result of conflict. If the manager had a heart attack, everyone would feel sorry and say that he or sh e was under too much stress, but a manager's moodiness, low self-esteem, inability to mak e a decision, and dissatisfaction with the boss and the job cause people to get angry and sa y that the manager is "no darned good" or "can't get along with anyone." Both a heart attac k and a psychological problem may have the same cause (too much stress and conflict), an d although people may react to them differently, the negative effect on performance is th e same in the case of a psychological problem, or perhaps even worse. Behavioral Problems Due to Stress and Conflict {#behavioral-problems-due-to-stress-and-conflict dir="ltr"} ---------------------------------------------- As has been the case with other topics covered in this text, the behavioral unit of anal ysis may be most helpful---in this case, in analyzing the effects of job stress and conflict. Direct behaviors that may accompany high levels of stress include undereating or overeat ing, sleeplessness, increased smoking and drinking, and drug abuse. When it is realize d that 6% of the population are alcoholics, that another estimated 10% are problem drinkers , and that several billion doses of amphetamines and barbiturates are consumed annually, 12 7 the potential problems for employee behavior caused by alcohol and drug abuse becom e dramatically clear. For example, one company had such a problem with on-the-job drink One of the major causes of stress for managers come s from time pressures. No matter how fast some man agers work and how much time they put in, they ar e still unable to get all their work done. One of th e most effective ways of dealing with this problem i s the use of time management techniques. Today man y organizations from Chase Manhattan to Exxon t o Xerox a retraining their managers in how to get mor e done in less time. Some of the most helpful guide lines for effective time management are the follow ing: OB IN ACTION: TAKING TIME TO MANAGE TIME {#ob-in-action-taking-time-to-manage-time dir="ltr"} ======================================== 4. Set time aside during the day, preferably at leas t - ne hour, when visitors or other interruptions ar e not permitted. 5. Have the secretary screen all incoming calls i n - rder to turn away those that are minor or do no t require your personal attention. 6. Eat lunch in the office one or two days a week i n - rder to save time and give yourself the opportu- nity to catch up on paperwork. 7. Discourage drop-in visitors by turning your des k so that you do not have eye contact with the doo r - r hallway. 8. Read standing up. The average person reads faste r 3. 2\. 1. 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T1he work may when may these between those president experience in drunk Put be conversations to a between things manifested slightly them 4:30 say, as every and on in of that "I uncomfort- stress stress the this the guess 5:00P.M have day." brief top in unio com- no an an tar- I'l s o 128 o f t. n d d l There is {#there-is dir="ltr"} -------- especially absenteeism react by getting drunk and staying home from work the next day with a hangover. The y then feel bad about this drinking. They may feel that they are letting everyone down "th e morning after" and eventually quit or are fired from the job. In the meantime the absentee ism rate climbs, and subsequently the turnover rate increases, both of which are very costl y to the organization in terms of filling in for absent workers and replacing those who hav e left. Staying away from a job that is causing stress or quitting the job is a "flight" reactio n to the situation. Actually, this may be a healthier reaction than a "fight" reaction, in whic h the person may stay on the stress-producing job and become angry and/or aggressive. Like the psychological problems resulting from stress and conflict, the behaviora l problems are often not attributed to stress by coworkers or supervisors and generate littl e sympathy. But, also like the psychological and the physical symptoms of stress, the behav ioral problems can be controlled, more effectively managed, and even prevented by th e individual and the organization. These coping strategies are discussed next. COPING STRATEGIES FOR STRESS AND CONFLICT {#coping-strategies-for-stress-and-conflict dir="ltr"} ========================================= Much of the discussion so far in this chapter and, at least indirectly, a lot of the material i n previous and subsequent chapters (for example, discussions of job design, goal setting , organizational behavior modification, group dynamics, political strategies, leadershi p styles, organization processes and design, control techniques, management of change, an d organization development techniques) suggest ways to manage and cope more effectivel y with stress and conflict. There are even overall theories being developed on coping wit h stress, 131 basic research on the role that personality132 and trust133 can play in coping wit h stress and conflict in organizations, and practical guidelines for converting stress into suc cess. 134 The accompanying OB in Action: Taking Time to Manage Time suggests som e simple techniques, such as time management, that can be used to cope with stress, an d there are many lists of steps to take in order to avoid stress and burnout found in the prac titioner literature. 135 Interactive behavior at both the interpersonal and intergroup levels resulting in conflic t rather than stress per se has its own solutions for coping and managing. For example, a win-win strategy of conflict resolution or types of strategies such as avoidance, defusion , ple based health words, well-being All, vidual making global oriented olution own containment, emerging Individual are Today, most wellness. approach foods, and virtual actually as conclude a books138 basic described people change organizational to IAPP self-help and also or teams Individual taking research has Coping confrontation136 the physical don't on in include concentrated in in chapter. resolving their remedies, responsibility, the today's have indicating coping psychological exercise coping lives. accompanying Strategies to conflict organizations. be do-it-yourself Today, strategies on strategies are are how convinced ©2 negotiation or well ROOFS being in know conflict well-being, this the OB for known for given workplace, they coping 137 in of stress, approaches, dealing management Action: skills. There the should much in 021 spiritual responsibility value the conflict After continue with but Making attention negotiation be of weight-loss taking the a vitality, can stress taking summary management more to it influence in responsibility, Work goes be make the skills charge and academic, many mass clinics beyond of by ethics. sense. of the both Not practitioner- and and conflict media. success and research- 139 the physica Doing In for actuall there diets othe indi- thei Peo- res- o i i y s r r f t l , Some specific techniques that individuals can use to eliminate or more effectivel y manage inevitable, prolonged stress are the following: 1\. Exercise. Today, it is not whether you win or lose, but whether you get some goo d exercise that counts. People of all ages are walking, jogging, swimming, riding bicy cles, or playing softball, tennis, or racquetball in order to get some exercise to comba t stress. Although this seems to make a great deal of sense and many laypeople an d physicians swear by it, there still is no conclusive evidence that exercise will alway s reduce the chances of heart disease or stroke. But there seems little doubt that it ca n help people better cope with the pressures of life, and as Shawn Achor recentl y explains, "Physical activity can boost mood and enhance our work performance in a number of other ways as well, by improving motivation and feelings of mastery , reducing stress and anxiety, and helping us get into flow\--that "locked in" feeling o f total engagement that we usually get when we're at our most productive." 140 2. Relaxation. Whether a person simply takes it easy once in a while or uses specifi c relaxation techniques such as biofeedback or meditation, the intent is to eliminate th e immediately stressful situation or manage a prolonged stressful situation more effec tively. Taking it easy may mean curling up with a good book in front of a fireplace o r watching something "light" (not a violent program or a sports program) on television. There is even some recent research evidence that those who do expressive writin g about stressful events in their lives experience health benefits. 141 Meditation involve s muscle and mental relaxation; the person slowly repeats a peaceful phrase or word o r concentrates on a mental picture in a quiet location. There is growing research evi dence that such meditation can have a desirable physical142 and mental impact o n people. 143 Achor notes, "research even shows that regular meditation can perma nently rewire the brain to raise levels of happiness, lower stress, even improv e immune function." 144 However, whether it can have a practical impact on job stress i s yet to be determined. Nevertheless, a number of firms are using it. For example, a stockbroker who regularly uses meditation stated: "It's widely known that this indus try has a lot of stress. So where a lot of people drink alcohol, we meditate. It's not tha t 3. 4. Behavioral ple we they Besides By ior, control aware assistant also egy stream Cognitive don't deliberately or people involves manage remain situations of IAPP such them. of managing their screen feel used therapy. customer can self-control. calm as the stress. individuals' have limits achieve as Ellis's managing all that consequences an and their complaints Besides entered It and complaints they individual just collected rational self-control. own Chapter of know the doesn't controlling "red the behavioral behavior antecedents ©2 and emotive strategy stress by will flags" after all 12 ROOFS hit rewarding allow gives day For put us interacting field to that the self-control for model them as example, could reduce only specific and signal much." situation reducing with under themselves 021 the exceptions change and stress, cognitive with trouble attention sales consequences techniques, cognitive job stress. instead a people the managers particularly stress. ahead. to with therapy In antecedent to reach of behavior other behavior can Building an a They letting of number who also them. extra techniques. their words, angry can by have become management the modificatio self-efficac break own They avoid of having customer this situatio a clinica behav- stead Tech- coul whe mor strat- peo- a n y n y n n d e l.. psychologists niques have been (confidence, see Chapter 7) through Bandura's social cognitive theory has also bee n used. 145 Research has shown that those of low self-efficacy are stressed both emo tionally and physiologically, but those with high self-efficacy are unfazed by heav y workloads. 146 Thus, the goal is to gain or enhance one's sense of efficacy over stress ful situations, as an individual coping strategy for stress reduction, through successfu l performance experience, vicarious experience, social persuasion, and/or controllin g physiological and emotional states. 147 5\. Networking. One clear finding that has come out of social psychology research ove r the years is that people need and will benefit from social support.148 Applied as a strategy to reduce job stress, this would entail forming close associations with truste d empathetic coworkers and colleagues who are good listeners and confidence builders. These friends are there when needed and provide support to get the person throug h stressful situations. Today, such alliances, especially if deliberately sought out an d developed, are called networks and now social capital.149 Although the specific rela tionship between social support and stress reduction appears complicated, 150 there i s some research evidence that a networking strategy may be able to help people cop e better with job stress151 and be more effective152 and successful managers. 153 Organizational Coping Strategies {#organizational-coping-strategies dir="ltr"} -------------------------------- Organizational coping strategies are designed by management to eliminate or contro l organizational-level stressors in order to prevent or reduce job stress for individua l employees. Earlier in the chapter, the organizational stressors were categorized in terms o f overall policies and strategies, structure and design processes/functions, and working con ditions (see Figure 9.2). A major challenge facing the management of conflict at this orga nization level is to answer questions such as: "How do you ensure that relevant informatio n gets transferred between two parts of an organization that have different cultures? How d o you encourage people from units competing for scare corporate resources to wor k together?" 154 It logically follows that each of these areas would be the focus of attention in develop ing organizational coping strategies. In other words, each of the specific stressors would b e job personal/ putting responsible. worked would resolved). tion tion tions tance triates ing daughter of as able formalization problem-focused possible. a goals. would Today, sharing effort (for big and has be tremendous on in-line example, leisure sales position improved) received With in to If be firms In IAPP would When order de-stressing employees and given the order. increased skating, goals such specialization. structural level be increased to safety a pressure coping to and milestone eliminate At improved, as making (e.g., but coworkers Hewlett-Packard SAS processes/functions fall hazards globalization, the strategies not area, weight on attention. short organization. they performance by or employees is and The steps would reduce time reached, are not ©2 of loss, of ambiguous same ROOFS For encouraged their would only expatriate on the be job exercise, and the example, in coping would removed, For reviews for personal/leisure have stress. competitive (for be the assignment.155 example, example, or taken adjustment large example, all be take to strategies conflicting For 021 one and applaud the done and to time software example, study pay usual back lighting, HP battles leaving in communication off plans to is goals, with the requires found goals away manage benefits moderated for firm and in areas at the as noise, the the would that supervisors from 2:00 equitable SAS are same employees of policy the family) but the giving and physical high realize P.M. by stress be gusto also and effectivenes temperatur cultural clarified area, and degrees as consider- to informa- nutritio are of they as to well condi- take as atten- expa- land- hav hel dis- fai ar o o a n d e e e a s r s r f counseling, youth day camps, and medical facilities on-site. The firm's 4,000 employee s bring 700 children to the day care facility and will soon enroll them in SAS kindergarten. The Association for Fitness in Business estimates that thousands of companies toda y offer stress-coping programs ranging from counseling services, lunchtime stress-manage ment seminars, and wellness publications to elaborate company-run fitness centers wher e employees can sweat out the tension. There is evidence that these stress management pro grams are increasing and are being evaluated more rigorously. 156 Some are getting quit e creative. For example, Pixar (the movie maker) created Pixar University (PU), an in-hous e operation with free classes for employees in data programming, tai chi, gesture drawing , improvisational acting, and juggling. In general, most firms today are trying to reduce stress and conflict through work-fam ily initiatives. These involve both reorganization initiatives (e.g., restructuring of jobs an d job duties, telecommuting, part-time work and job sharing, and flexible scheduling) an d work and life benefit policies and programs (e.g., on-site child care and/or elder care, pai d family and medical leave, release time for personal/family events, and limits on frequenc y and distance of business travel). Employee assistance programs (EAPs) have also become a very valuable organiza tional response to help employees cope with stress. EAPs are currently implemented i n over half of U.S. organizations with 50 or more employees and have been found to consis tently reduce absenteeism, health care costs, and disciplinary action. 157 EAPs typicall y provide employees with services such as confidential counseling and/or follow-up o n issues of personal or work-related concerns. They also provide family workshops and con sultations (related to marriage, single parenting, working parents), stress managemen t workshops, relaxation seminars, and other kinds of support. Often, the mere presence o f mind that EAPs provide---knowing that there is support available---can help ease some o f the stress that employees face in today's environment.158 Besides work-family programs and EAPs, because of the stress resulting from down sizing in recent years, growing concern is also being given to both those who are let go an d those who survive. For example, theoretical models159 are being created and basi c research160 is being done on coping with job loss. One stream of research has examined th e role that procedural justice (perceptions of fairness) plays on those affected by downsizing. us. 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