Chapter 8 Thinking, Reasoning, and Language PDF

PSYC 105 Chapter 8 Thinking & Language  Cognitive Psychology = branch of psychology that explores the operation of mental processes related to perceiving, attending, thinking, language, and memory It aims to understand how these processes influence behavior and how they int...

PSYC 105 Chapter 8 Thinking & Language  Cognitive Psychology = branch of psychology that explores the operation of mental processes related to perceiving, attending, thinking, language, and memory It aims to understand how these processes influence behavior and how they interact with each other 2  Cognitive Psychology Remember John B. Watson? He said psychology shouldn’t study any phenomena it couldn’t directly measure » Stimulus → Response 3  Cognitive Psychology Re-emerged in the 1950s 1. Emphasized unseen knowledge processes instead of directly observable behaviors 4  Cognitive Psychology 2. Argued that the relationship between stimulus and response was complex and mediated rather than simple and direct Stimulus ? Response 5  Factors Behind Reemergence Dissatisfaction with behaviorism & psychoanalytic view of the mind New experimental methods Mind as computer processor analogy 6  Names Behind Reemergence Herbert Simon (1916–2001) – economist- political scientist, decision making, pioneer of AI Jean Piaget (1896–1980) – development of thinking Noam Chomsky (1928–Present) – openly criticised behaviorism, language 7 Cognitive Psychology is Empirical Empirical refers to knowledge based on observation, experience, or experiment, rather than theory In research, empirical evidence is data collected through direct observation or experimentation that can be tested and verified 8  Cognitive Science Spurred Experimental Cognitive Psychology – memory, attention, problem solving, linguistics Information Processing Approach – artificial intelligence, computer simulations Cognitive Neuroscience – normal functioning, effects of brain damage 9  Thinking = any mental activity or processing of information Incudes learning, memory, perceiving, communicating, problem solving, and deciding 10  Information Processing Theories about cognition state there are differing levels of information processing William James (1890) - associative and true reasoning 11  Dual Process Theory Two thinking systems: System 1. Unconscious, quick, uses shortcuts, often relied on, but less precise System 2. Intentional, calculated, more accurate, requires effort, and is slower  Thinking Fast and Slow (2011) Khaneman on Dual Process Theory (6.35 min) 13  Cognitive Misers Due to cognitive limitations (such as time, energy, and mental resources), there is a human tendency to prefer simpler and less effortful problem-solving methods over more complex ones, regardless of intelligence  Dual Process Theory and Cognitive Efficiency System 1 (autopilot) is low calorie thinking – about 90% of the time System 2 (deliberate) is high calorie thinking  Energy-Intensive Organ Using glucose as fuel, the brain uses 20% of the body’s energy at rest, despite being 2% of its mass Energy demand rises slightly during complex tasks  System 1 Thinking 3 Methods for Energy Conservation  1. Heuristics = mental shortcuts that help the brain make decisions quickly and with minimal effort – E.g., instead of carefully analyzing all options when choosing a product, the brain might rely on brand recognition By contrast, an algorithm guarantees a solution but may be much less efficient 18  Heuristic Types Availability - Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind Representative - Judging categories based on similarity to a mental prototype  Advantage They are efficient: Gosling (2007): After viewing Facebook pages briefly, participants accurately guessed the owners’ personalities Ambady & Rosenthal (1993): After watching a silent 30-second clip of an instructor, participant evaluations matched student feedback at the end of the course 20  2. Cognitive Bias Systematic patterns of deviation from rationality or logical thinking, where people’s judgments and decisions are influenced by subjective factors – Expectations – Emotions – Motivations  Types Confirmation Bias - we seek info that supports our preconceptions, and dismiss info that contract them Hindsight Bias - we believe past events were easily predictable  Types Ingroup Bias - we favor individuals who belong to the same group (ingroup) Outgroup Homogeneity Bias - we see less variance in outgroups than ingroups  Pros and Cons They mostly work, that’s why we use them Can sometimes lead to irrational or incorrect judgments  3. Attention Attention is a finite resource, and the brain has limited capacity to focus on multiple things at once When attention is divided or overwhelmed by information, the brain struggles to process everything thoroughly, leading to biased judgments or incomplete thinking  E.g., Driving When driving, your attention is focused on the road and vehicles, while non-essential details are largely ignored or processed unconsciously You only attend to what’s most relevant to driving safely  System 2 Thinking Refers to the more deliberate, conscious, and analytical mode of thinking that requires effort and attention We switch to System 2 thinking when situations are: – Unfamiliar – Consequential – Cognitively manageable (low load) 27  Uses Requires cognitive resources and control Involves breaking down problems, assessing evidence, and reasoning through logical steps Critical thinking, managing biases  Linguistics = the scientific study of the physical, structural, functional, psychological, and social characteristics of human language 29  Language = method of communicating, spoken or written, by using words in a structured and conventional way to transmit information 30  Lots of Interest Neuroscience - anatomy & their functioning Clinical - individuals’ dominant words Culture – similarities and differences – e.g., dialectics – regional differences in 1 language 31  Acquisition = the learning or developing of a skill, habit or quality How do humans acquire language? 32  Empiricist Theories Verbal Behavior (1957) According to B. F. Skinner, children acquire language through imitation & reinforcement 33  Nativist Theories Noam Chomsky (1959) Because there are an infinite amount of combinations, we can’t learn them all Also, kids overregularize language (generalizing grammatical rules incorrectly; e.g., he goed home), which they can’t learn from adults 34 Language Acquisition Device (LAD) Inherited capacity to learn language from linguistic data supplied from parents & others Contains significant innate knowledge Only this can explain how competence in language results from a deprived input 35  Critical Periods Studies of children with limited exposure to language Language development in bilinguals Language acquisition and timing  As always… The balanced approach usually wins Interactionist theories -- biology and experience (nature & nurture) both make important contributions to language acquisition 37  Language Development Infant vocalizations are initially similar across languages Infants make repetitive babbling (=vocalizations that lack meaning), phonemes (=sounds of language) and morphemes (=smallest units of speech like, “sa”, “th”, “ch”) 38  Extralinguistic Information Non-verbal elements that accompany or support verbal communication, providing additional context or meaning – Facial expressions – Body language – Tone of voice  Syntax Set of rules, principles, and structures that govern the arrangement of words and phrases in a sentence to create grammatically correct sentences It focuses on sentence structure and word order without considering the meaning  Semantics Branch of linguistics concerned with the meaning of words, phrases, sentences, and texts It focuses on how meaning is interpreted and understood, regardless of grammatical structure  Language Development At 6 months babbling resembles area language, takes on a conversational tone At 1 year first word similar across cultures – comprehension > production At 2 most produce 100s At 5 most produce 1,000s 42  Can Animals Develop Language? Researchers have attempted to teach a variety of animals – dolphins, parrots, chimps Main problem: animals lack the vocal apparatus Therefore, began to use ASL with chimps 43  Gardner (1969) Successful at teaching a chimpanzee, Washoe, to use ASL Washoe developed a vocabulary of about 160 words, but showed little evidence of mastering the rules of language 44  Savage-Rumbaugh Striking advances with bonobo chimps—the famous Kansi Trained to use geometric symbols with a lexigram Worked better but couldn’t master syntax and put words together 45  Conclusion Language is uniquely human due to its complexity, structure, and ability to convey abstract concepts, emotions, and ideas – Syntax and Grammar – Symbolism – Cultural Transmission  Timeline Language is believed to have evolved in humans over a long period, likely beginning around 100,000 to 200,000 years ago in Homo sapiens The exact timeline is uncertain, but it’s generally thought that early forms of communication gradually evolved into more complex language systems  Neurological Evolution The expansion of the neocortex, especially in areas like Broca’s (speech production) and Wernicke’s (language comprehension), enabled complex language processing Enhanced neural connectivity supported abstract thought, memory, and syntax  Anatomical Evolution The evolved vocal tract (e.g., a lowered larynx) and fine motor control of the tongue, lips, and vocal cords enabled humans to produce diverse and articulate speech  Natural Selection Language likely provided survival advantages by helping humans: – Communicate, collaborate – Find mates, care for offspring – Outcompete others THE END 51