Psychosocial Development in Early Childhood PDF

Psychosocial Development in Early Childhood Chapter 8 © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Guideposts for Study l How does self-concept develop during childhood, and how do children show self-esteem, emotional growth, and initiative? l How do...

Psychosocial Development in Early Childhood Chapter 8 © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Guideposts for Study l How does self-concept develop during childhood, and how do children show self-esteem, emotional growth, and initiative? l How do boys and girls become aware of the meaning of gender, and what explains differences in behavior between the sexes? l How do preschoolers play, and how does play contribute to and reflect development? l How do parenting practices influence development? l How do young children get along with (or without) siblings, playmates, and friends? © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Self-Concept l Our total image of ourselves l A cognitive construction l Self-definition Characteristics by which children describe themselves © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Self-Image Representations l Single Representations – Isolated, one-dimensional terms without logical connections – “You can’t be happy and scared!” – Real self vs. ideal self l Representational Mappings – Logical connections between parts of self-image – Expressed in positive all-or-nothing terms – “I can run fast and climb high!” © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Cultural Differences in Self-Description l Parents transmit cultural ideas and beliefs about how to define the self l Chinese parents encourage: – Compliance with authority – Sense of community l European-American parents encourage: – Individuality and self-expression – Self-esteem © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Self-Esteem l The evaluative part of self-concept l Child’s judgment of his or her overall worth l In early childhood tends to be either “I am good” or “I am bad” © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  The “Helpless” Pattern l When self-esteem is contingent on success l Failure may make the child feel helpless to do better l Improved self-esteem depends on whether children believe their traits are fixed or changeable © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Building Your Child’s Self-esteem lhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jvufTp2c2LU © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Self-Evaluative Emotions l Ability to recognize – Guilt – Shame – Pride l Develops around age 3 l Becomes more complex with age © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Simultaneous Emotions l Young children have difficulty in recognizing that they can experience more than one emotion at the same time © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Erikson: Initiative vs. Guilt l Conflict arises from growing sense of purpose and desire to plan activities l Children reconcile desire to “do” with their desire for approval l Virtue of “purpose”—the courage to envision and pursue goals without fear of punishment © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Gender Identity l Awareness that one is male or female l Develops in the context of society l Behavioral differences—choices of – Toys – Play activities – Playmates © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Gender Differences l Measurable differences are few l 78% of differences are small and often change with age l Boys—superior motor performance and more active physical activity l Girls—better attention and inhibition of inappropriate behavior l Cognitive differences are few © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Nurturing Gender l Gender Roles Behaviors and attitudes that a culture considers appropriate for males or females l Gender-typing The process by which children acquire a gender role l Gender Stereotypes Preconceived generalizations about male or female behavior © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Biological Approach to Gender l Many cultures have similar gender roles l Genetic, hormonal, and neurological evidence l Gender reassignment often fails—indicating identity may be rooted in chromosomal structure © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Evolutionary Developmental Approach l Biologically based, with a purpose—theory of sexual selection l Men seek many partners, whereas women invest more heavily in child care and reproductive support l Theory suggests that gender roles are universal and resistant to change © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Psychoanalytic Approach to Gender Roles l Freud suggested a process of “identification” – Children adopt characteristics and attitudes of the same-sex parent – Occurs when a boy gives up desire to possess his mother; a girl, her father © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Social Learning Approach l Observation enables children to learn about gender-typed behaviors l Children select or create their own environments through choice of playmates and activities © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Cognitive Approach to Gender Roles l Children classify themselves as male or female l Then they organize their behavior – Adopt behaviors they perceive as consistent with their gender © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Kohlberg’s Gender Constancy l A child’s realization that his or her sex will always be the same l Three steps: – Gender identity – Gender stability – Gender consistency © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Gender-Schema Theory: Bem l Schema Mentally organized information that influences a category of behavior (gender) l Children take on gender roles that are consistent with their sex and culture l Gender schemas promote gender stereotypes © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Socialization-Based Approach to Gender Roles l Family influences l Peer influences l Cultural influences © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Types of Play l Functional Repetitive muscle movements l Constructive Using objects to build something l Dramatic Fantasy play, dramatic play, or imaginative play © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Parten’s Social Dimensions of Play l Unoccupied behavior l Onlooker behavior l Solitary play l Parallel play l Associative play l Cooperative play © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Imaginary Companions l Girls more likely to have them; boys more likely to impersonate imaginary characters l Children with imaginary companions: – More imaginative – More cooperative with others – More fluent with language – Watch less TV – Show more curiosity and excitement during play © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Influences on Play l Gender Boys lean toward active play Girls choose more structured activities l Culture © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Children Speaking About the Importance of Play lhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sby38BbLZuY © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Importance of Play lhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vnH4Ijen7OI © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Box 1: Does Play Have an Evolutionary Basis? l Play has several purposes: – Adaptive activity through which children learn about adult life – Aids bone and muscle development – May be linked to evolution of intelligence – Gender differences may be linked to survival l Different types of play serve different adaptive functions © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Discipline: Reinforcement and Punishment l Reinforcements – External l Tangible – candy, money, stickers l Intangible – praise, hug, extra attention – Internal – sense of accomplishment l Punishment – Isolation or denial of privileges – Corporal punishment – use of physical force © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Box 2: Case against Corporal Punishment l Corporal punishment is banned in many countries l Linked to aggression l Cross-cultural research l Other alternatives © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Categories of Discipline l Power Assertion – Psychological aggression – Demands, threats, spankings l Withdrawal of Love – Ignoring and isolation l Inductive Techniques – Reasoning and setting limits © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Baumrind’s Parenting Styles l Authoritarian Control and unquestioning obedience l Permissive Parents value self-expression and self-regulation l Authoritative Value child’s individuality, as well as restraint l Neglectful or Uninvolved (Maccoby & Martin) Parental needs are most important © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Support and Criticisms of Baumrind’s Model l Authoritative style has research support l Controversy over one “right” way to raise children l Cultural differences (e.g., Asian styles) © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Parental Concerns l Promoting altruism Prosocial behavior that often entails cost, self-sacrifice, or risk l Reducing aggression © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Types of Aggression l Instrumental aggression o Most common in early childhood o Achieves a goal l Overt aggression (boys) o Direct physical force or overt threats l Relational aggression (girls) o Covert, indirect, or psychological aggression o Manipulation and threats © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc  Questions about Aggression l What are the sources of aggression? l What are the triggers of aggression? l How does culture influence aggression? l Gender differences in aggression? © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Childhood Fears Age Fears 7–12 Strangers, heights, unexpected objects months 1 year Separation from parent, injury, strangers 3 years Masks, dark, animals, separation from parent 5 years Animals, “bad” people, dark, separation 7–8 yrs Dark, scary news stories, staying alone © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Brothers and Sisters l Sibling Rivalry Earliest disputes are over property rights l Also affection, interest, and companionship l Older siblings tend to initiate more interactions l Younger siblings tend to imitate older ones l Siblings cooperate more when mother is not present Squabbling can be a bid for attention © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc The Only Child l Research does not support stereotypes of only children being: – Selfish – Lonely – Spoiled – Maladjusted l “Onlies” tend to be more mature and motivated to achieve © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Playmates and Friends l About age 3, children begin to have friends l Friends tend to be same age and sex l Traits children (4–7 yrs) look for in a friend: – Doing things together – Liking and caring for each other – Sharing and helping each other © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Benefits of Friendships l Children begin to learn: – How to get along with others – How to solve relationship problems – Empathy l Children with friends: – Enjoy school more – Are a source of help and self-validation © 2012 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc