Chapter 7 Selection PDF

Chapter 7 Selection Fotoli Learning Objectives 7.1 Define selection and discuss its strategic importance. 7.2 Explain the selection process. 7.3 Describe considerations in the preliminary applicant screening. 7.4...

Chapter 7 Selection Fotoli Learning Objectives 7.1 Define selection and discuss its strategic importance. 7.2 Explain the selection process. 7.3 Describe considerations in the preliminary applicant screening. 7.4 Define reliability and validity, and explain their importance in selection techniques. 7.5 Describe at least four types of testing used in selection, and analyze the conflicting legal concerns related to alcohol and drug testing. 7.6 Describe the majortypes of selection interviews by degree of structure, type of content, and manner of administration. 7.7 Explain the importance of reference checking, describe strategies to makesuch checking effective, and analyze the legal issues involved. 7.8 Discuss the role of the supervisor in the interview process, and explain the benefits of a realistic job preview. 7.9 Determine how the final hiring decision is made. 123  124 Chapter 7 WhereAre WeNow... Chapter 6 focused on building a good quality and acceptable quantity of applicants. This chapter discusses how weselect the mostsuited candidate out of the pool of appli-cants. In this chapter, we discuss the selection process and detail tools to help maximize the likelihood that weselect the bestsuited candidate for the organization. The concept of selection is not limited to HR professionals, but one that managers, entrepreneurs, employees and leaders are actively involved in. TheStrategicImportance of EmployeeSelection 7.1 Define selection and discuss its strategic importance. 7.2 Explain the selection process. selection Selection is the process of choosing among individuals who have been recruited to fill The process of choosing existing or projected job openings. Whether considering current employees for atrans-fer among individuals who have or promotion or outside candidates for afirst-time position with the firm, informa-tion been recruited to fill existing about the applicants must be collected and evaluated. Selection begins when a pool or projected job openings. of applicants has submitted their rsums or completed application forms as a result of the recruiting process. The selection process has important strategic significance. More and more man-agers have realized that the quality of the companys human resources is often the single mostimportant factor in determining whether the firm is going to survive and be successful in reaching the objectives specified in its strategic plan. Those individuals selected will beimplementing strategic decisions and, in some cases, creating strategic plans. Thus, successful candidates must fit with the strategic direction of the organiza-tion. For example, if the organization is planning to expand internationally, language skills and international experience will become important selection criteria. When a poor selection decision is made and the individual selected for the job is not capable of acceptable performance in the job, strategic objectives will not be met. In addition, when an unsuccessful employee must be terminated, the recruitment and selection process must begin all over again, and the successor must be properly oriented and trained. The hidden costs arefrequently even higher, including internal disorga-nization and disruption and customer alienation. Recent research identifies that while ideally selection should involve a clear process,in reality, the adoption and use of an appropriate selection process may be problematic in many organization, often resulting in a number of hiring mistakes. Selecting candidates based on information provided via their rsum or CV assumes that the information provided is honest and accurate. In a 2017 survey of 700 workers and senior managers, 37 percent of Canadian workers admitted that they knew at least one person who provided false information on their rsum. More specifically, job experience and job duties werethe most misstatedfollowed by education levels or success, and employment dates. Also, 40 percent of senior managersidentified that they were concerned with inflated or dishonest rsums.1 Thus, further steps in the selection process can be helpful in assessing accuracy of information provided by the candidate, multiple-hurdle strategy as well as gathering more detailed, comprehensive and transferrable information about An approach to selection person-job fit and person-organization fit. involving a series of successive steps or hurdles. Only The Selection Process candidates clearing the hurdle are permitted to move on to Most firms use a sequential selection system involving a series of successive stepsa the next step. multiple-hurdle strategy. Only candidates clearing a hurdle (selection technique  Selection 125 Figure 7.1 SixTypical Hurdlesin the Selection Process 1. Preliminary 2. Selection testing 3. Selection 4. Background 5. Supervisory 6. Hiring decision applicant screening interview investigation/ interview and and candidate reference checking realistic job notification preview including prescreening, testing, interviewing, and background or reference checking) are permitted to move on to the next step. Clearing the hurdle requires meeting or exceeding the minimum requirements established for that hurdle. Thus, only candi-dates who have cleared all of the previous hurdles remain in contention for the position at the time that the hiring decision is being made. To assess each applicants potential for success on the job, organizations typically rely on a number of sources of information. The number of steps in the selection process and their sequence vary with the organization. The types of selection instruments and screen-ing devices used are also not standardized across organizations. Even within a firm, the number and sequence of steps often vary with the type and level of the job, as well as the source and method of recruitment. Figure 7.1 illustrates the steps commonly involved. At each step in the selection process, carefully chosen selection criteria must be used to determine which applicants will move on to the next step. It is through job analysis that the duties, responsibilities, and human requirements for each job are identified. By basing selection criteria on these requirements, firms can create a legally defensible hiring system.2 Individuals hired after thorough screening against these care-fully developed selection criteria (based directly on the job description and job specifi-cations) learn their jobs readily, are productive, and generally adjust to their jobs with a minimum of difficulty. Designing an effective selection process involves composing a series of job-related questions to be asked of all applicants for a particular job and job-related, candidate-specific questions. Doing so involves the following five steps, the first two of which should occur before recruitment:3 must criteria 1. Decide who will be involved in the selection process and develop selection Requirements that are absolutely essential for the job, criteria. Specifying selection criteria involves clarifying and weighting the infor-mation include a measurable standard in the job description and job specifications and holding discussions among of acceptability, or are absolute the interview team members, especially those most familiar with the job and and can be screened initially co-workers. on paper. 2. Specify must and want criteria and reconsider the want criteria. Once agreed on, the selection criteria should be divided into the two categories: musts and want criteria wants.4 Must criteria are those that are absolutely essential for the job, include Those criteria that represent a measurable standard of acceptability, or are absolute. There are often only two qualifications that cannot be must items: a specific level of education (or equivalent combination of education screened on paper or are not and work experience) and a minimum amount of prior work experience. These readily measurable, as well as criteria can be initially screened based on the applicants rsums or applications. those that are highly desirable The want criteria include skills and abilities that cannot be screened on paper but not critical  126 Chapter 7 (such as verbal skills) or are not readily measurable (such as leadership ability, teamwork skills, and enthusiasm), as well as qualifications that are desirable but not critical. 3. Determine assessment strategies and develop an evaluation form. Once the must and want criteria have been identified, appropriate strategies for learning about each should be specified. For some qualifications, especially those that are critically important, the team may decide to use several assessment strategies. For example, leadership skills might be assessed through behavioural questions, situational questions, a written test, and an assessment centre. Once all want criteria have been agreed on and weighted, it becomes the basis for candidate comparison and evaluation. 4. Develop interview questions to be asked of all candidates. Questions should be developed for each KSA to be assessed during the interview. Job-knowledge questions and worker-requirements questions to gauge the applicants motivation and willingness to perform under prevailing working conditions, such as shift work or travel, should also be included. 5. Develop candidate-specific questions. A few open-ended, job-related questions that are candidate specific should be planned, based on each candidates rsum and application form. Acquiring Employees and the Law The entire recruitment and selection procedure must comply with human rights legislation. All information collected from the time an ad is posted to the time that the selection decision is made must be free from questions that would directly or indirectly classify candidates on the basis of any of the prohibited grounds under human rights legislation; potential employers cannot ask for a photograph, infor-mation about illnesses, disabilities or workers compensation claims, or informa-tion that could lead to direct, intentional discrimination, such as age, gender, sexual orientation, marital status, maiden name, date of birth, place of origin, number of dependents, and so on. If the process collects any information that is considered a prohibited ground for discrimination, an unsuccessful candidate may challenge the legality of the entire recruitment and selection processes. In such cases, the burden of proof is on the employer. Thus, taking human rights legislation requirements into consideration when designing effective recruitment and selection procedures is imperative. A Guide to Screening and Selection in Employment in Appendix 7.1 provides helpful hints. Specific guidelines regarding questions that can and cannot be asked on application forms are available through the human rights commissions in each jurisdiction. Managing the process in a legally defensible way involves keeping the following guidelines in mind: 1. Ensure that all selection criteria and strategies are based on the job description and the job specifications. 2. Do not ask questions that would violate human rights legisla-tion, either directly or indirectly. Questions cannot be asked about candidates marital status, childcare arrangements, ethnic background, or workers compensation history, for example. 3. Obtain written authorization for reference checking from pro-spective employees, and check references carefully. 4. Save all records and information obtained about the applicant Peshkova/Fotoli during each stage of the selection process. More and more HR professionals are improving the 5. Reject applicants who make false statements on their application initial screening process with the use of technology. forms or rsums.  Selection 127 Step1: Preliminary Applicant Screening 7.3 Describe considerations in the preliminary applicant screening. Initial applicant screening is generally performed by members of the HR department. Application forms and rsums are reviewed, and those candidates not meeting the essential selection criteria are eliminated first. Then, the remaining applications are examined and those candidates who most closely match the remaining job specifica-tions areidentified and given further consideration. The use of technology is becoming increasingly popular to help HR professionals improve the initial screening process. Almost all large firms or firms with high turnover use technological applications to help screen large numbers of candidates and gener-ate short lists of individuals who will move on to the next step in the selection process. Technology can be used to aid in the screening process. Selection Ratios Although it is desirable to have a large qualified pool of recruits from which to select applicants, this is not always possible. Certain vacant positions may be subject to a labour shortage (based on job requirements, location, work environment, and so on), while other simultaneous vacant positions may be subject to a labour surplus (due to external environment factors, training and education levels, immigration patterns, and so on). Aselection ratio is the ratio of the number of applicants hired to the total num-ber selection ratio of applicants available, asfollows: The ratio of the number of applicants hired to the total Number of Applicants Hired Total Number of Applicants = Selection Ratio number of applicants In 2016, CIBC had 710 920job applicants apply for 13 245 available jobs, reflecting a selection ratio of roughly 1:54. In comparison, the selection ratio at Business Develop-ment Bank of Canada (BDC) was1:91 and at Ceridan was1:12.5 Asmall selection ratio may be indicative of a limited number of applicants from which to select, and it may also mean low-quality recruits. Perhaps the way used to advertise the job wasineffective, or the job requirements madepotential candidates feel that they would not be a good fit for the job, resulting in low levels of applicants. With small selection ratios, it is generally better to start the recruitment process over again rather than taking the risk of hiring an employee who will be a marginal performer at best, even if it means a hiring delay. Alarge selection ratio maybeindicative that the job adis too vague, that there is an oversupply of available labour in the workforce, or that the company is an employer of choice among candidates. HR would need moreresources to find the right job candidate among the high number of applicants or may need to automate the screening process. When selection rations are high, candidates have to be more competitive. Employers mayfind candidates who have strong qualifications or exceed the job requirements when selection ratios are high. The larger selection ratio may allow employers to look for their wantcriteria and their mustcriteria when screening candidates. Data Analytics Data or workforce analysis is revolutionizing the employee screening and selection pro-cess.6 New number-crunching data analysis software enables employers to dig through their existing employee datato betteridentify whattypes of people succeed or fail. That information can be used to screen and progress applicants who meetthe desired profile moreeasily. For example, in staffing its call centres, Xerox Corp.long assumed that appli-cants with call centre experience madethe best candidates, but instead it turned out to be personality; creative personalities were successful, while inquisitive ones were not. Xerox now relies onits computerized software to hire for its almost 40 000call centrejobs.  128 Chapter 7 Employers using such automated screening systems should remember that they are dealing with human beings. Thus, employers should ensure the rejection standards in the automated screening systems are valid and that they respond quickly to applicant inquiries regarding their status in a timely manner (which can be automated in the system).7 Crowdsourcing Google found a way to foster the employee interaction its success depends on by using crowdsourcing for screening decisions.8 When a prospective employee applies for a job, his or her information (such as school and previous employers) goes into Googles applicant-tracking system (ATS).9 The ATS then matches the applicants information with that of current Google employees. When it finds a match, it asks those Google employees to comment on the applicants suitability for the position. This gives Google recruiters a valuable insight into how the employees actually doing the work think the applicant will do at Google. It also fosters a sense of community and interac-tion among Google employees. Step 2: Selection Testing 7.4 Define reliability and validity, and explain their importance in selection techniques. 7.5 Describe at least four types of testing used in selection, and analyze the conflicting legal concerns related to alcohol and drug testing. Selection testing is a common screening device used by approximately two-thirds of Canadian organizations to assess specific job-related skills as well as general intelli-gence, personality characteristics, mental abilities, interests, and preferences.10 Testing techniques provide efficient, standardized procedures for screening large numbers of applicants. Several thousand psychological and personality tests are on the market.11 The different types of tests used for selection include tests of cognitive abilities (including intelligence tests, emotional intelligence tests, and tests for specific cognitive abilities), job-specific tests (including tests of motor/physical abilities, work sampling, achievement tests, and micro-assessments), tests of personality and interests, and physi-cal examination tests (including substance abuse testing and polygraph tests). Assess-ment centres use expert appraisers to assist with testing if required. TheImportance of Reliability and Validity Tests and other selection techniques are only useful if they provide reliable and valid measures.12 All reputable tests will provide information to users about the reliability and validity of the test. reliability Reliability The degree to which interviews, tests, and other selection procedures yield The degree to which comparable data over time is known as reliability. Reliability is the degree of depend-ability, interviews, tests, and other consistency, or stability of the measures used. For example, a test that results in selection procedures yield widely variable scores (for example, if the same candidate completes the test three times comparable data over time; and secures scores of 60 percent, 82 percent, and 71 percent) when it is administered on in other words, the degree of different occasions to the same individual is unreliable. Reliability also refers to the dependability, consistency, or extent to which two or more methods yield the same results or are consistent. For stability of the measures used. example, applicants with high scores on personality tests for impulsivity or lack of self-control are correlated with the likelihood of failing background checks due to criminal behaviour.13 Reliability also means the extent to which there is agreement between two or more raters (inter-rater reliability)  Selection 129 When dealing with tests, another measure of reliability that is taken into account is internal consistency. For example, suppose a vocational interest test has 10 items, all of which were supposed to measure, in one way or another, the persons interest in work-ing outdoors. To assess internal reliability, the degree to which responses to those 10 items vary together would be statistically analyzed (which is one reason that tests often include questions that appear rather repetitive). Reliability can be diminished when questions are answered randomly, when the test setting is noisy or uncomfortable, and when the applicant is tired or unwell. Validity Validity, in the context of selection, is an indicator of the extent to which data validity from a selection technique, such as a test or interview, are related to or predictive of The accuracy with which a subsequent performance on the job. For example, high impulsivity is correlated with predictor measures what it is low productivity.14 Separate validation studies of selection techniques should intended be con-ducted to measure. for different subgroups, such as visible minorities and women, to assess differential validity. In some cases, the technique may be a valid predictor ofjob suc-cess differential validity for one group (such as white males) but not for other applicants, thereby leading Confirmation that the to systemic discrimination. Three types of validity are particularly relevant to selection: selection tool accurately criterion-related, content, and construct validity. predicts the performance of all possible employee subgroups, including white males, women, Criterion-Related Validity The extent to which a selection tool predicts or significantly cor-relates visible minorities, persons with with important elements of work behaviour is known as criterion-related validity. disabilities, and Aboriginal Demonstrating criterion-related validity requires proving that those who exhibit strong people. sales ability on a test or in an interview, for example, also have high sales on the job, and that those individuals who do poorly on the test or in the interview have poor sales results. criterion-related validity The extent to which a selection Content Validity When a selection instrument, such as a test, adequately samples the tool predicts or significantly knowledge and skills needed to perform the job, content validity is assumed to exist. correlates with important The closer the content of the selection instrument is to actual samples of work or work elements of work behaviour. behaviour, the greater the content validity. For example, asking a candidate for a secre-tarial position to demonstrate word processing skills, as required on the job, has high content validity content validity. The extent to which a selection instrument, such as a test, Construct Validity The extent to which a selection tool measures a theoretical construct adequately samples the or trait deemed necessaryto perform the job successfully is known asconstruct validity. knowledge and skills needed Intelligence, verbal skills, analytical ability, and leadership skills are all examples of to perform the job. constructs. Measuring construct validity requires demonstrating that the psychological trait or attribute is related to satisfactory job performance, as well as showing that the construct validity test or other selection tool used accurately measures the psychological trait or attribute. The extent to which a selection As an example of poor construct validity, an accounting firm was selecting applicants tool measures a theoretical for auditor positions based on a test for high extroversion, when the job in fact required construct or trait deemed working alone with data. Atest to select applicants with high introversion would have necessary to perform the job had higher construct validity and would have helped to avoid the high turnover rate successfully the firm was experiencing.15 Professional standards for psychologists require that tests be used as supplements to other techniques, such as interviews and background checks; that tests be validated in the organization where they will be used; that a certified psychologist be used to choose, validate, administer, and interpret tests; and that private, quiet, well-lit, and well-ventilated settings be provided to all applicants taking the tests.16 Testsof Cognitive Abilities Ensuring validity of selection tools when assessing candidates with disabilities may require accommodation of the disability. Included in the category of tests of cognitive abilities are tests of general mental ability (intelligence), tests of emotional intelligence, and tests of specific cognitive abilities, such as memory and inductive reasoning.  130 Chapter 7 intelligence (IQ) tests Intelligence Tests Intelligence (IQ) tests aretests of general intellectual abilities (also Tests that measure general referred to as general mental abilities or GMA) and have been used since the end of intellectual abilities, such World WarI.17 They measure not a single intelligence trait, but rather a number of as verbal comprehension, abilities, including memory, vocabulary, verbal fluency, and numerical ability. An IQ inductive reasoning, score is actually a derived score, reflecting the extent to which the person is above or memory, numerical ability, below the average adults intelligence score. Empirical research suggests that general speed of perception, spatial mental ability is the strongest general predictor of job performance at ones chosen visualization, and word occupation.18 Intelligence is often measured with individually administered tests, such fluency. as the Stanford-Binet test or the Wechsler test. Other IQ tests, such as the Wonderlic Personnel Test, can be administered to groups of people. These are relatively quick pen and paper or online tests that can be accessedfor a nominal fee. emotional intelligence (EI) Emotional Intelligence Tests Emotional intelligence (EI) tests measure a persons tests ability to monitor his or her own emotions and the emotions of others and to usethat Tests that measure a persons knowledge to guide thoughts and actions. Someone with a high emotional quotient ability to monitor his or (EQ) is self-aware, can control his or her impulses, is self-motivated, and demonstrates her own emotions and the empathy and social awareness. Many people believe that EQ, which can be modified emotions of others and to through conscious effort and practice, is actually a more important determinant of suc-cess use that knowledge to guide than a high IQ. However,there is extremely limited and highly controversial empir-ical thoughts and actions. evidence to support the importance of EQ in the workplace.19 Self-assessment tests include the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), the EQ Map,the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), and the Emotional Intelligence Question-naire (EIQ). The Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI) is a 360-degree assessment in which several individuals evaluate one person to get a more complete picture of the individuals emotional competencies.20 Specific Cognitive Abilities There are also measures of specific thinking skills, such as inductive and deductive reasoning, verbal comprehension, memory, and numerical abil-ity. aptitude tests Testsin this category are often called aptitude tests, since they purport to measure Tests that measure an the applicants aptitude for the job in question, that is, the applicants potential to per-form individuals aptitude or the job once given proper training. An example is the test of mechanical compre-hension potential to perform a job, illustrated in Figure 7.2. It tests the applicants understanding of basic mechanical provided he or she is given principles. It maytherefore reflect a persons aptitude for jobssuch asthat of machinist proper training. or engineerthat require mechanical comprehension. Multidimensional aptitude tests commonly used in applicant selection include the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB). Job-Specific Tests Ajob-specific test evaluates a candidates ability to perform core functions critical to the job performance. The test is unique to the job posted and can be administered by either HR or department managers. Tests of Motor and Physical Abilities There are many motorabilities that a firm might want to measure. These include finger dexterity, manual dexterity, speed of arm move-ment, and reaction time. Motor abilities tests measure the speed and accuracy of simple Figure 7.2 Test of MechanicalComprehension Based on the figure below, please identify how much weight is required to balance the lever. 5 K 3 m 1 m  Selection 131 judgment, as well as the speed of finger, hand, and arm movements. Tests include the Crawford Small Parts Dexterity Test, the Stromberg Dexterity Test, the Minnesota Rate of Manipulation Test, and the Purdue Pegboard. Physical abilities tests may also be required.21 For example, some firms are now using functional abilities evaluations (FAE) to assist with placement decisions. An FAE that measures a whole series of physical abilitiesranging from lifting, to pulling and pushing, sitting, squatting, climbing, and carryingis particularly useful for positions with a multitude of physical demands, such as a firefighter or police officer.22 Ensuring that physical abilities tests do not violate human rights legislation requires basing such tests on job duties identified through job analysis and a physical demands analysis, ensuring that the tests duplicate the actual physical requirements of the job, developing and imposing tests honestly and in good faith, ensuring that those administering the tests are properly trained and administer the tests in a consistent manner, and ensuring that testing standards are objectively related to job performance.23 Work Sampling Work samples focus on measuring job performance directly and thus are among the best predictors of job performance. In developing a work-sampling test, experts first list all the possible tasks that jobholders would be required to perform. Then, by listing the frequency of performance and relative importance of each task, key tasks are identified. Each applicant then performs the key tasks, and his or her work is monitored by the test administrator, who records the approach taken. Finally, the work-sampling test is validated by determining the relationship between the applicants scores on the work samples and their actual performance on the job. Once it is shown that the work sample is a valid predictor of job success, the employer can begin using it for selection.24 Achievement Tests An achievement test is basically a measure of what a person has achievement tests learned. Most tests taken in school are achievement tests. They measure knowledge or Tests used to measure proficiency in areas, such as economics, marketing, or HRM. Achievement tests are also knowledge or proficiency widely used in selection. For example, the Purdue Test for Machinists and Machine acquired through education, Operators measures the job knowledge of experienced machinists with questions, such training, or experience. as What is meant by tolerance? Other tests are available for electricians, welders, carpenters, and so forth. In addition to job knowledge, achievement tests measure the applicants abilities; a keyboarding test is one example. Micro-Assessments An entirely performance-based testing strategy that focuses on individual performance is a micro-assessment. In a micro-assessment, each applicant micro-assessment completes a series of verbal, paper-based, or computer-based questions and exercises A series of verbal, paper-based, that cover the range of activities required on the job for which he or she is applying. In or computer-based questions addition to technical exercises, participants are required to solve a set of work-related and exercises that a candidate problems that demonstrate their ability to perform well within the confines of a certain is required to complete, department or corporate culture. Exercises are simple to develop because they are taken covering the range of activities required on the job for which directly from the job. he or she is applying. Testsof Personality and Interests A persons mental and physical abilities are seldom sufficient to explain his or her job performance. Other factors, such as the persons motivation and interpersonal skills, are important too. Personality and interest inventories are sometimes used as predictors of such intangibles. Personality tests can measure basic aspects of an applicants personality, such as personality tests introversion, stability, and motivation. The use of such tests for selection assumes that Instruments used to measure it is possible to find a relationship between a measurable personality trait (such as basic aspects of personality, conscientiousness) and success on the job.25 Many of these tests are projective. In the such as introversion, stability, Thematic Apperception Test, an ambiguous stimulus (such as an inkblot or clouded motivation, neurotic tendency, picture) is presented to the test taker, and he or she is asked to interpret or react to it. self-confidence, self-sufficiency, and sociability Given that the pictures are ambiguous, the persons interpretation must come from  132 Chapter 7 their own perspectivesthe viewer supposedly projects into the picture his or her own emotional attitudes about life. Thus, a security-oriented person might have a very different description of what he or she sees compared to someone who is not. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator instrument, which has been in use for more than 50 years, is believed to be the most widely used personality inventory in the world. More than 2 million assessments are administered annu-ally in the United States alone.26 Another example of a Business/Fotoli common personality test is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), which measures traits such as hypochondria and paranoia. Monkey Tests and inventories can be done in standardized formats, often using Research studies confirm that personality tests pen and paper tests or online environments to collect information. can help companies hire more effective workers. For example, industrial psychologists often talk in terms of the Big Five personality dimensions as they apply to employment testing: extroversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience.27 These dimensions can be measured using the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) and similar tests. One study focused on the extent to which these dimensions predicted performance (e.g., in terms of job and training proficiency) for professionals, police offi-cers, managers, sales workers, and skilled or semi-skilled workers. Conscientiousness showed a consistent relationship with all performance criteria for every occupation. Extroversion was a valid predictor of performance for managers and sales employeesthe two occupations involving the most social interaction. Both openness to experience and extroversion predicted training proficiency for all occupations.28 There has been an ongoing debate in the research world on whether personality can be faked. In a test of 77 experienced assessors, more than 70 percent agreed that faking is a serious threat to the validity of personality inventory in the assessment process.29 Evidence supports two specific trends in personality tests and faking: (1) people can fake personality inventories when they are motivated to do so, and (2) individual dif-ferences exist in the ability to fake.30 interest inventories Interest inventories compare a candidates interests with those of people in various Tests that compare a occupations. Thus, a person taking the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory would candidates interests with receive a report comparing his or her interests with those of people already in occupa-tions those of people in various such as accountant, engineer, manager, or medical technologist. Interest inventories occupations. have many uses. One is career planning, since people generally do better in jobs involv-ing activities in which they have an interest. Another is selection. If the firm can select people whoseinterests are roughly the same asthose of high-performing incumbents in the jobs for which it is hiring, the new employees are more likely to be successful.31 Physical Examinations Medical Examinations The use of medical examinations in selection has decreased, in part because of the loss of physically demanding manufacturing and natural resource jobs. Before 1980, 25 percent of new hires underwent a medical exam, but by 2001, only 11 percent were required to do so.32 Three main reasons that firms may include a medi-cal examination as a step in the selection process are as follows: 1. To determine that the applicant qualifies for the physical requirements of the position and, if not, to document any accommodation requirements; 2. To establish a record and baseline of the applicants health for future insurance or compensation claims; and 3. To reduce absenteeism and accidents by identifying any health issues or concerns that need to be addressed, including communicable diseases that the applicant  Selection 133 may have been unaware. Medical exams are permitted only after a written offer of employment has been extended (except in the case of bona fide occupational requirements, as for food handlers). The purpose of pre-employment substance abuse testing is to avoid hiring employ-ees who would pose unnecessary risks to themselves and others or perform below expectations. However, in Canada, employers are not permitted to screen candidates for substance abuse. Alcohol and drug addiction are disabilities under human rights codes (see Chapter 2), and an employee cannot be discriminated against during the selection process based on a known disability.33 However, the candidate has the responsibility to disclose their addiction, which rarely occurs in the selection process. Polygraph Tests A polygraph test (also referred to as a lie detector test) involves using a series of controlled questions while simultaneously assessing physiological conditions of individuals such as blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and skin conductivity, with the assumption that deceptive responses produce different physiological responses than truthful responses. Such tests have been widely rejected by the scientific community since they have failed to produce valid or reliable results. In Ontario, the Employment Standards Act specifically prohibits use of polygraphs in pre-employment selection. Val-idated management assessment tests of honesty or integrity are more useful and reliable in the selection process. centre A comprehensive, systematic Useof Assessment Centres procedure used to assess candidates management Management Assessment Centres In a management assessment centre, the man-agement potential that uses a potential of 10 or 12 candidates is assessed by expert appraisers who observe combination of realistic them performing realistic management tasks. The centre may be a plain confer-ence exercises, management room, but it is often a special room with a one-way mirror to facilitate unobtrusive games, objective testing, observations. Examples of the types of activities and exercises involved include the presentations, and interviews. following: 1. An in-basket exercise. Each candidate is faced with an accu-mulation of reports, memos, messages from incoming phone calls, letters, and other materials collected in the in-basket of the simulated job that he or she is to take over and is required to take appropriate action. For example, he or she must write letters, return phone calls, and prepare meeting agendas. The trained evaluators then review the results. 2. A leaderless group discussion. A leaderless group is given a discussion question and told to arrive at a group decision. The raters evaluate each candidates interpersonal skills, acceptance by the group, leadership ability, and individual influence. Phot 3. Management games. Participants engage in realistic problem Stock solving, usually as members of two or more simulated com-panies that are competing in the marketplace. Decisions might have to be made about issues such as how to advertise and manufacture, and how much inventory to keep in stock. 4. Individual presentations. During oral presentations on an Photography/Alamy assigned topic, each participants communication skills and persuasiveness are evaluated. Places 5. Objective tests. Candidates may be asked to complete paper-and-pencil or computer-based personality, aptitude, interest, Howes/Wild or achievement tests. 6. An interview. Most centres also require an interview between Chris at least one of the expert assessors and each participant to eval-uate A management game or simulation is a typical interests, background, past performance, and motivation. component in a management assessment centre. 134 Chapter 7 Step3: TheSelectionInterview 7.6 Describe the major types of selection interviews by degree of structure, type of content, and manner of administration. The interview is used by virtually all organizations