Chapter_7.pdf

7 CONFLICT AND STRESS INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of the learning experience, students must be able to: 1. Understand the nature of conflict in organizations and its leading causes. 2. Have the necessary information to resolve many workp...

7 CONFLICT AND STRESS INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of the learning experience, students must be able to: 1. Understand the nature of conflict in organizations and its leading causes. 2. Have the necessary information to resolve many workplace conflicts, including dealing with difficult people. 3. Be aware of basic negotiating and bargaining techniques to resolve conflict. 4. Understand the nature, causes, and consequences of work stress. 5. Explain what organizations can do to manage and reduce stress. 6. Do a more effective job of managing your own stress. A. NATURE OF CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATIONS Conflict refers to the opposition of persons or forces giving rise to some tension, or to a disagreement between two or more parties who are interdependent.2 A conflict occurs when two or more parties pursue mutually exclusive goals, values, or events. Each side believes that what it wants is incompatible with what the other wants, such as two groups wanting to use the same conference room at the same time. Conflict can also take place at the individual level when a person has to decide between two incompatible choices. For example, a person might have to choose between accepting a job transfer and remaining in town with family and friends. Refusing to transfer could mean a job loss, whereas accepting the transfer would mean less contact with family and friends. Conflict has enough emotional content to lead to stress for the individuals involved. The sources, antecedents, or outright causes of conflict are numerous, and the list is dynamic. At any given time, a new and potent source of conflict might emerge, such as management’s current emphasis on hiring freelance workers rather than offering full-time employment and paying full benefits. Here we describe six illustrative sources of workplace conflict. a. Perceived Adverse Changes A high-impact source of conflict is a change in work methods, conditions of work, or employment opportunities that the people involved perceive negatively. Downsizing, the laying off of workers to reduce costs and increase efficiency, is one such change. An aspect of downsizing that continues to gain momentum is the automation of jobs, such as replacing rapid-service restaurant workers with tablet computers that customers can use to order food. People who want the jobs are in conflict, as are the workers who see their coworkers dismissed. Continuous downsizing, even when business conditions improve, can precipitate labor versus management conflict. Management wants to eliminate as many jobs as possible, whereas the labor union values job security for its members. Despite these conditions, all parties do not perceive downsizing as an adverse change. Company executives may believe that downsizing is rightsizing, leading to an efficient, competitive firm that will attract investors. b. Line versus Staff Differentiation A major form of conflict takes place between line and staff units. Line units deal with the primary purposes of the firm, such as the sales group in a business firm. Staff units deal with the P a g e | 104 secondary purposes of the firm, such as the environmental protection unit in a business firm. They also deal with the activities necessary to make the line activities more efficient and effective. Staff units might do the hiring and the labor-contract interpretations, and verify that the line group complies with environmental laws. Yet they would not manufacture or sell the product or service. Although some researchers regard the line versus staff dichotomy as outdated, most managers and professionals in organizations still find this distinction useful. Staff managers and professionals advise managers but cannot make certain decisions about themselves. A human resources professional, for example, might advise top management about the adverse consequences of downsizing following a merger. Nevertheless, this professional does not have the authority to halt the downsizing. Line and staff workers may conflict when the line manager perceives that the staff professional is attempting to heavily influence his or her decisions. c. Sexual Harassment Many employees experience conflict because of sexual harassment by a manager, coworker, customer, or vendor. Sexual harassment is unwanted sexually oriented behavior in the workplace that results in discomfort and/or interference with the job. High profile cases of sexual harassment have received extensive formal media and social media attention in recent years in many fields, including traditional business, show business, politics, civil service, the military, labor unions, and professional and amateur athletics. Types and Frequency Sexual harassment is divided into two types. In quid pro quo harassment, the employee’s submission to or rejection of unwelcome sexual advances is used as the basis for a tangible employment action about the employee. An example of a tangible employment action is hiring, firing, or failing to promote a person. The demands of a harasser can be explicit or implied. Sexual harassment is considered illegal when it takes place so frequently or is so severe that it creates a hostile work environment or adversely affects the victim’s job. Hostile working environment harassment occurs when someone in the workplace creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment. A tangible employment advantage or adverse economic consequence does not have to exist. The hostile-environment type of harassment is subject to considerable variation in perception and interpretation. The meanings and interpretations of what constitutes sexual harassment continue to evolve with judicial rulings. Role of Perception Typical harassment behaviors include physical contact, inappropriate remarks, a sexual proposition, a threat or promise associated with a job, comments on the other person’s physical appearance, or a glaring stare at the person being harassed. Male workers had a slight edge in the accuracy of their perceptions about what constitutes harassment, and women in white-collar jobs were more accurate than women in bluecollar jobs. More recent research suggests that some men and women underestimate the discomfort their unwanted overtures cause recipients. For example, “I didn’t know that sending her 10 text messages asking her to out to dinner was so intimidating. What’s the big deal about saying no to my requests?” Eliminating and Decreasing Harassment Company policy that emphasizes the illegality of sexual harassment is helpful in minimizing harassment on the job. The policy should be supported by an organizational culture that promotes just treatment of employees by managers and coworkers. A highly effective preventive measure is for individual workers to assert their rights at the first instance or hint of harassment. Many more complaints about sexual harassment are filed than courts can possibly handle. Furthermore, employers can defeat Title VII of the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 by demonstrating P a g e | 105 that they have an internal mechanism in place to report harassment and that the plaintiff neglected to use the mechanisms. Many recommendations to managers have been advanced to help prevent sexual harassment in the workplace. A particularly useful one is offered by attorney Jonathan A. Segal, who suggests that managers detail what constitutes prohibited conduct. Three key points should be made by management: Offensive conduct can occur not only in the workplace but also at company sponsored business and social events and can even include pursuing a romantic relationship with a coworker by calling or texting him or her during nonworking hours. Harassing behavior beyond that of other employees can be reported, including the behavior of customers, vendors, and suppliers. Harassment taking place through social media, e-mail, and text messages is within the scope of prohibited conduct. The combination of EEOC dictates and company policies against harassment helps reduce conflict over sexual harassment because the source of the conflict is reduced or eliminated. Management must carefully evaluate all accusations of sexual harassment and not assume that the accused person is guilty. A person accused of sexual harassment deserves to present his or her side of the story and should receive due process from the organization. One of the reasons that sexual harassment is difficult to prevent and decrease is that it is about power as well as sex. James Campbell, a professor of leadership and management at the University of Texas at Arlington, says that sexual harassment is about power, aggression, and manipulation and is an abuse of power. d. Factional Groups and Intragroup Conflict Interpersonal conflict often takes place because there are different factions (subgroups) within groups with different points of view and different loyalties. The factions often take place because of a merger, and groups are formed to balance the representatives from the two merged companies, such as two merged banks. Factional groups may also arise when a joint venture takes place, such as two companies working together to produce top-ofthe-line home-entertainment centers. Each of the two parent companies assigns a few of its own managers to be on the new, joint-venture’s management team. Often the factional group consists of two subgroups, each with several representatives, such as a cost-cutting task force consisting of three representatives each from marketing, operations, and finance. The potential for conflict within factional groups increases when the subgroups differ substantially in demographic characteristics, such as age, gender, and educational level. Factional group conflict is often referred to as intragroup conflict because the problems exist inside the group among its members. Intragroup conflict can arise from various sources, such as diverse opinions and perspectives, and generational conflicts. Incivility, personality clashes, and bullying (described later) also contribute to intragroup conflict. e. Competing Work and Family Demands Balancing the demands of career and family has become a major challenge facing today’s workforce. The challenge is particularly intense for employees who are part of a two wage-earning family. Work–family conflict occurs when the individual has to perform multiple roles: worker, spouse, and often, parent or guardian of a dependent parent. (Work–family conflict is usually referred to as work–life conflict, but that term overlooks the idea that work is a big part of life.) This type of conflict is frequent because the multiple roles are often incompatible. Imagine having planned to attend your child’s championship soccer game and then being ordered at the last minute to attend a late- P a g e | 106 afternoon meeting. Men as well as women experience considerable work–family conflict because of the desire to be successful at work and also spend a lot of time engaged in family activities, including being a good parent. Work–family conflict works in two directions: Work can interfere with the family, and the family can interfere with work. Impact on Individual A survey of 513 employees in a Fortune 500 company supports the plausible finding that working work–family conflict. Conflict that ensues when the individual has to perform multiple roles: worker, spouse, and often, parent. Chapter 13 Conflict and Stress 1 long hours interferes with family life. The long hours, in turn, lead to depression for some individuals and stress-related health problems, such as ulcers. Work–family conflict is also a problem for employers because stressed-out workers are often less productive due to a reduced ability to concentrate on work. Furthermore, a study revealed that dual earner couples who experienced work–family conflict were more likely to experience family interruptions at work, tardiness, and absenteeism. Reducing Work–Family Conflict The general solution to work–family conflict is to have workplaces where employees have a choice of when, where, and how they do their work, as described in the chapter opener. Organizational programs to help reduce work–family conflict include flexible working hours, work-at-home programs, dependent-care centers, and parental leave programs. Time off to take care of urgent family demands, including parent-teacher conferences, is another potent approach to alleviating work–family conflict. A note of caution for career-minded people is that a conflict-free balance between work and home life may be difficult to attain because significant career accomplishments require so much commitment. In the words of business writer Keith H. Hammonds, “Simply cutting back on work inevitably fails, because in real life, success in work is predicated on achievement. In a competitive business environment—which is to say, every business environment—leadership requires commitment, passion, and to be blunt, a lot of time.” Incivility, Personality Clashes, Bullying, and Abusive Supervision Many instances of workplace conflict stem from individuals’ dispositions as well as personality clashes. (A disposition is a characteristic attitude, similar to a personality trait.) People who are rude and uncivil or engage in bullying readily enter into conflict. Incivility (or employees’ lack of regard for one another) has gained attention as a cause of workplace conflict. Incivility researcher Christine Porath says that left unchecked, rampant incivility makes our days tenser. Incivility also leads to a loss of focus, a decline in productivity, a deliberate slacking off among disgruntled employees, and sometimes serious health problems. Another problem is that an organizational climate characterized by rudeness can result in aggressive behavior, high turnover, and lost customers. Being treated uncivilly by others often results in reciprocating by treating others in an uncivil manner. (“Act nasty to me, and I’ll act nasty to somebody else.”) Incivility can create divisiveness in a team, destroy collaboration, and diminish a sense of psychological safety. As a result, team effectiveness suffers. Incivility often stems from a person experiencing heavy work pressure, but communication technology is another key factor. It is much easier to have misunderstandings when communication does not include tone of voice or facial expression.21 Many other workplace conflicts arise because of people simply disliking each other. A personality clash is an antagonistic relationship between two people based on differences in personal attributes, preferences, interests, values, and styles. People involved in personality clashes often have difficulty in specifying why they dislike each other. Generational differences can result in personality clashes based on differences in values. As described in Chapter 4, members of different P a g e | 107 generations often have different values, and these differences can lead to workplace conflict. Bullying behavior contributes to substantial interpersonal conflict in the workplace. f. Task versus Relationship Conflict Some conflicts within the group deal mostly with disagreements over how work should be done. They are referred to as task (or cognitive) conflicts because they deal mostly with the work itself rather than with emotions and relationships. Two group members, for example, might argue over whether it is better to use their limited advertising budget to buy space on the outside of a bus versus air time on the radio. Task conflict focuses on substantive, issue-related differences pertaining to the work itself. These issues are tangible and concrete and can be dealt with more by intellect than by emotion. Other conflicts within the group are more people oriented. They occur because people have personality clashes, are rude to each other, or simply view many problems and situations from different frames of reference. Relationship conflict focuses on personal, individual-oriented issues. The conflict relates to subjective issues that are dealt with more by emotion than by intellect. One symptom that relationship conflict exists within the group is when, during a meeting, two people say to each other frequently, “Please let me finish. I’m still speaking.” Task conflict in moderate doses can be functional because it requires teams to engage in activities that foster team effectiveness. Team members engaged in moderate task conflict critically examine alternative solutions and incorporate different points of view into their goals or mission statement. Because frank communication and different points of view are encouraged, task conflict can encourage innovative thinking. In contrast, relationship (or affective) conflict undermines group effectiveness by blocking constructive activities and processes. By means such as directing anger toward individuals and blaming each other for mistakes, relationship conflict leads to cynicism and distrust. Consequences of Conflict Conflict results in both positive and negative consequences. The right amount of conflict may enhance job performance, but too much or too little conflict lowers performance. Positive Consequences of Conflict 1. Increased creativity. Talents and abilities surface in response to conflict. People become inventive when they are placed in intense competition with others. The anger that often stems from conflict can lead to imaginative problem solving, such as being so angry about being passed over for promotion that the individual finds a way of becoming more promotable. 2. Increased effort. Constructive amounts of conflict spur people to new heights of performance. People become so motivated to win the conflict that they may surprise themselves and their superiors with their work output. 3. Increased diagnostic information. Conflict can provide valuable information about problem areas in the department or organization. When leaders learn of conflict, they may conduct investigations that will lead to the prevention of similar problems. 4. Increased group cohesion. When one group in a firm is in conflict with another, group members may become more cohesive. They perceive themselves to be facing a common enemy. Negative Consequences of Conflict When the wrong amount or type of conflict exists, job performance may suffer. Some types of conflict have worse consequences than others. 1. Poor physical and mental health. Intense conflict is a source of stress. A person under prolonged and intense conflict may suffer stress-related disorders. Many acts of workplace violence stem from highly stressed employees or former employees who experienced conflict with supervisors or coworkers. P a g e | 108  2. Wasted resources. Employees and groups in conflict frequently waste time, money, and other resources while fighting their battles. One executive took a personal dislike to one of his managers and therefore ignored his cost-saving recommendations. 3. Poor performance and sidetracked goals. When emotional conflict is too strong, the team performance may suffer because not enough attention is paid to the task. Emotions may run so high in the group that the members may be unable to discuss their differences in a rational way. 4. Heightened self-interest. Conflict within the group often results in extreme demonstrations of self-interest at the expense of the group and the larger organization. Individuals or groups place their personal interests over those of the rest of the firm or customers. One common result of this type of self-interest is hogging resources. 5. Workplace violence. A disastrous consequence of intense conflict on the job is that it may result in workplace violence. Employees who are angry with their supervisor, or who think they may be terminated, or who argue intensely with coworkers, may become so enraged that they go on a shooting rampage. Conflict-Management Styles Before describing specific methods of resolving conflict, it is useful to understand five styles of handling conflict. As shown in Figure 13-1, the five styles are based on a combination of satisfying one’s own concerns (assertiveness) and satisfying the concerns of others (cooperativeness). 1. Competitive. The competitive style is a desire to achieve one’s own concerns or goals at the expense of the other party, or to dominate. 2. Accommodative. The accommodative style favors appeasement, or satisfying the other’s concerns without taking care of one’s own. 3. Sharing. The sharing style is halfway between domination and appeasement. Sharers prefer moderate but incomplete satisfaction for both parties, which results in a compromise. 4. Collaborative. In contrast to the other styles, the collaborative style reflects a desire to fully satisfy the desires of both parties. It is based on an underlying philosophy of win-win, the belief that, after conflict has been resolved, both sides should gain something of value. A win-win approach is genuinely concerned with arriving at a settlement that meets the needs of both parties, or at least one that does not badly damage the welfare of either side. When a collaborative approach is used, the relationship between the parties improves. 5. Avoidant. The avoider is both uncooperative and unassertive. He or she is indifferent to the concerns of either party. The person may actually withdraw from the conflict or rely on fate. Conflict-Resolution Methods Styles of dealing with conflict are closely related to methods of resolving conflict. For example, a collaborative style is a way of managing and resolving conflict. Here we present a sampling of conflict-resolution methods by describing confrontation and problem solving, as well as several structural methods. a. Confrontation and Problem Solving. A widely applicable approach to resolving conflict is confrontation and problem solving, a method of identifying the true source of conflict and resolving it systematically. The confrontation approach is gentle and tactful rather than combative and abusive. Reasonableness is important because the person who takes the initiative in resolving the conflict wants to maintain a harmonious working relationship with the other party. The collaborative style of conflict resolution meshes together confrontation and problem solving. A major outcome is that trust is built between two parties as they search for the real reason for conflict. P a g e | 109  b. Confront, Contain, and Connect for Anger. A variation of confrontation and problem solving has been developed specifically to resolve conflict with angry people, and it involves confronting, containing, and connecting. You confront by jumping right in and getting agitated workers talking to prevent future blowups. The confrontation, however, is not aimed at arguing with the angry person. If the other person yells, you talk more softly. You contain by moving an angry worker out of sight and out of earshot. At the same time, you remain impartial. The supervisor is advised not to choose sides or appear to be a friend. Finally, you connect by asking open-ended questions such as “What would you like us to do about your concern?” to get at the real reasons behind an outburst. Using this approach, one worker revealed he was upset because a female coworker got to leave early to pick up her daughter at day care. The man also needed to leave early 1 day a week for personal reasons but felt awkward making the request. So instead of asserting himself in explicit and direct fashion about his needs, he flared up. c. Structural Methods. A structural method of resolving conflict emphasizes juggling work assignments and reporting relationships so that disputes are minimized. One structural method for resolving conflict is for a manager to have direct control over all the resources he or she needs to get the job done. Conflict can often be reduced or prevented by one or more members from one organizational unit exchanging places with those of another unit; for example, shifting from purchasing to manufacturing. Working in another unit can foster empathy. Reassigning people in this way can also encourage people to develop different viewpoints in the affected groups. In some firms, top management maintains an open-door policy, in which any employee can bring a gripe to its attention without checking with his or her immediate manager. The open-door policy is a popular grievance procedure because it allows problems to be settled quickly. Having an effective method for resolving disputes between workers and managers minimizes the number of instances in which a company is served with a complaint or a notice of a claim from a state or federal agency. Most top-level managers would prefer to learn about an employee dispute themselves early in the dispute so the problem can be resolved, rather than from a lawyer representing the individual. B. DEALING WITH DIFFICULT PEOPLE Difficult person. An individual who creates problems for others yet has the skill and mental ability to do otherwise. Number of difficult employees appears to be increasing in recent years. The reasons for the increased number of difficult people in the workplace are that job stress has increased or that society is breeding more narcissistic personalities. Example of a difficult person is the bully and the “yes-person” who will agree to any commitment and promise any deadline, but will rarely deliver. Another type of difficult or toxic coworker is the person who is quick to “throw others under the bus.” These individuals are quick to assign blame to others when problems arise. Techniques for Helping Difficult People Change To More Constructive Behavioral Patterns 1. Use tact and diplomacy in dealing with annoying behavior. Tact and diplomacy are useful for dealing with a variety of disrupters, such as those coworkers who consistently talk about their P a g e | 110  personal interests, such as sports and favorite restaurants, while you are trying to focus on work. Tact and diplomacy can also be incorporated into confrontation. In addition to confronting a person, you might point out the individual’s good qualities 2. Hold an honest and candid conversation with the toxic coworker. Make an honest attempt to provide productive feedback to the individual, and perhaps ask for feedback in return about what you might be doing wrong in the work relationship. 3. Use non-hostile humor. Non-hostile humor can often be used to help a difficult person understand how his or her behavior has affected others. The humor will help defuse conflict between you and that person. It should also point to the person’s unacceptable behavior, yet not belittle the person. 4. Give recognition and attention. Counterproductive or difficult people, like misbehaving children, are sometimes crying out for attention. By giving them recognition and attention, their counterproductive behavior will sometimes cease. 5. Reinforce civil behavior and good moods. The spirit of positive reinforcement, when a generally difficult person behaves acceptably, recognizes the behavior in some way. Reinforcing statements would include, “It’s enjoyable working with you today,” and “I appreciate your professional attitude.” C. NEGOTIATING AND COMPROMISING Conferring with another person in order to resolve a problem. For example, when you are trying to negotiate a fair salary for yourself, you are simultaneously trying to resolve a conflict between yourself and your employer. The demands of the two parties may seem incompatible, but through mutual-gains negotiation, a salary may emerge that satisfies both parties. Compromise. One party agrees to do one thing if the other party agrees to do something else. Realistic approach to resolving conflict and is almost inescapable in our culture. People enter into negotiation and bargaining sessions expecting a compromise solution. Major problem with compromise is that the two parties may wind up with a solution that pacifies both but does not solve the problem. One example would be buying only half of the equipment that each of two department heads requests. As a result, neither department really shows the productivity gain that would have been possible if the full request had been granted to both sides. Allow Room for Negotiation, but Be Plausible. The basic tactic of compromise is to begin with a demand that allows you room for compromise and concession. Most people believe that allowing room for negotiation includes beginning with an extreme demand or offer. A plausible demand is better because it shows you are bargaining in good faith. Also, if a third party has to resolve the conflict, a plausible demand or offer will receive more sympathy than an implausible one. Use Facts More than Threats. During negotiation, both sides often become emotional, sometimes to the point of one party threatening the other. It is a better negotiating tactic to stick with the facts, rather than threatening the other side. You should therefore do everything you can to share your understanding of the situation without triggering a perception of hostility or malicious intent on your part. Frame your statement as a natural consequence, not planned revenge. Focus on Interests, Not Positions. Rather than clinging to specific negotiating points, keep your overall interests in mind and try to satisfy them. Remember that the true object of negotiation is to satisfy the underlying interests of both sides.A key benefit of focusing P a g e | 111  on interests rather than positions is that it helps to place the emphasis away from winning and toward what you really want to achieve. If you focus on mutual interests, your intent will be to solve a problem rather than to outmaneuver the other side. For example, if a customer makes an unrealistic demand, your best interest is to somehow satisfy that demand without losing money and retain the customer. Make Small Concessions Gradually. Making steady concessions leads to more satisfactory agreements in most situations. The small- concession tactic is described as a soft approach to bargaining. The hardline approach isto make your total concession early in the negotiation and grant no further concessions. Use Deadlines. Giving the other side a deadline is often helpful in winning a negotiation or resolving a conflict. Deadlines often force people into action because they require some type of external control or motivation. Ask the Other Side, “What Do You Want Me to Do?” An effective tactic for both negotiation and other forms of conflict resolution is to ask the other side what he or she would like you to do in order to reach an agreement. The other team members will probably not make an outrageous demand. Also, they will probably regard your contribution as equitable because they formulated it. Make a Final Offer. Presenting a final offer will break a deadlock. Sometimes the tactic will be countered by a final offer from the other side. “Thanks for your interest in helping me set up a Web page. But the maximum price I am willing to pay is $250. Call me or text me if that price is acceptable to you”. One of you will probably give in and accept the other person’s final offer. D. WORK STRESS A stress is the mental and physical condition that results from a perceived threat that cannot be dealt with readily. Stress is therefore an internal response to a state of activation. The stressed person is physically and mentally aroused. Stress will ordinarily occur in a threatening or negative situation, such as worrying about losing one’s job or being reprimanded. The topic of work stress is of enormous interest to managers and other professionals because of its impact on productivity and its legal and human con- sequences. Companies lose an estimated $300 billion annually because of stress, taking into account below-standard job performance, turnover, and psychological depression. Furthermore, job stress can lead to physical problems that kill about 120,000 people in the United States each year. Symptoms and Consequences of Work Stress. A person experiencing stress displays certain symptoms indicating that he or she is trying to cope with a stressor, any force creating the stress reaction. These symptoms can include a host of physiological, emotional, and behavioral reactions. A problem with stress symptoms is that they lead to an adverse impact on employee health and well-being. Physiological symptoms of stress 1. Increased heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, pupil size, and perspiration. 2. Men, in particular, who respond most intensely to mental stress, have a higher risk of blocked blood vessels, which increases their risk of heart attack and stroke. 3. Result can be additional stress-related disorders, such as migraine headaches, ulcers, colitis, and allergies. 4. Stress also leads to a chemical imbalance P a g e | 112  Emotional symptoms of stress 1. Anxiety, tension, depression, discouragement, feeling unable to cope, boredom, prolonged fatigue, feelings of hopelessness, and various kinds of defensive thinking. Workplace anxiety A response to stressors that involves feelings of nervousness, uneasiness, and tension about job-related performance. Behavioral symptoms Nervous habits such as facial twitching, as well as sudden decreases in job performance due to forgetfulness and errors in concentration or judgment. If the stress is particular uncomfortable or distasteful, it will lower job performance. ▪ Negative and Positive Consequences of Work Stress Similar to conflict, not all stress is bad. People require the right amount of stress to keep themselves mentally and physically alert. The approximate relationship between stress (or anxiety) and performance is known as the Yerkes-Dodson law that has endured for over 100 years. As the task becomes more complex, less arousal or stress can be tolerated to achieve optimal performance, as illustrated in Figure 13-2. Yet, individual differences are important. For some people, a high amount of stress increases their ability to process information and get a complex task accomplished. A person’s perception of something or somebody usually determines whether that person or thing will be a positive or negative stressor. For example, one manager might perceive a quality audit by a corporate executive to be so frightening that he or she is irritable in dealing with team members. Another manager might welcome the visit as a chance to proudly display his or her department’s high-quality performance. Burnout is a pattern of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion in response to chronic job stressors. The same syndrome (collection of symptoms) is sometimes regarded as work exhaustion. Cynicism, apathy, and indifference are the major behavioral symptoms of the burned-out worker. Personal accomplishment finally diminishes as a result of burnout.48 Continuous heavy work demands, such as many Wall Street research analysts and sales consultants working 60 hours per week plus having long commutes, are a major contributor to burnout. Job burnout often leads to depression, and depression often leads to burnout. An encouraging note about this two-directional relationship was found in a study of over 2,000 adults who came to a medical center for three routine health exams over time. Factors Contributing to Work Stress ▪ Factors within the Individual. A general stressor that encompasses both individual and organizational factors is having to cope with significant change. The more significant the change you have to cope with in a short period of time, the greater the probability that you will experience a stress disorder. Changes might include new living quarters, a new job, unemployment, getting married, or becoming a parent. Hostile, aggressive, and impatient people, labeled as having Type A personalities, find ways of turning almost any job into a stressful experience, in contrast to their more easygoing counterparts with Type B personalities. In addition to being angry, the outstanding trait of people with a Type A personality is their strong ense of time urgency. A person with a Type A personality is prone to cardiovascular disorders, particularly when the individual is hostile. ▪ Negative lifestyle factors. Is also pre-dispose one to job stress. Among them are poor exercise and eating habits and heavy consumption of caffeine, alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs. Another factor predisposing a person to stress is a pessimistic attitude. Being optimistic, in contrast, helps a person ward off stress. Another form of stress many workers bring on P a g e | 113  themselves is nomophobia, a form of anxiety stemming from having no access to a smart phone or the phone battery being dangerously low. ( Nomophobia is short for non-mobile phobia and is also referred to as battery anxiety.) The same condition is characterized by the fear people can experience when they are out of mobile contact entirely. ▪ Adverse Organizational Conditions. High stress levels created by adverse organizational conditions lead to many negative symptoms. According to the job demands–job control model, workers experience the most stress when the demands of the job are high, yet they have little control over the activity. customer service representative dealing with a major blooper by the firm would fit into this category. A major contributor to work stress is role overload. Demands on managers and professionals are bat an all-time high as companies attempt to increase work output and decrease staffing at the same time. Better financial results are achieved by having fewer employees accomplish more work, thereby fostering role-overload stress. A long-recognized contributor to work stress is role conflict—having to choose between competing demands or expectations. We have already touched on role conflict in the study of value conflicts in Chapter 4 and work–family conflicts in this chapter. If a person complies with one aspect of a role, compliance with the other is difficult. Person– role conflict occurs when the role(s) an employer expects a worker to perform conflict with the person’s basic values Emotional labor, as described in Chapter 4, is a work-induced type of stress related to role conflict. The worker is stressed because of feeling obliged to act in a way that conflicts with his or her true feelings. Emotional labor also creates stress because it con- tributes to work–family conflict. Another role-related stressor is role ambiguity, a condition in which the jobholder receives confusing or poorly defined expectations. Role ambiguity involves several factors. First, there is insufficient information about the worker’s expected performance. Second, there is unclear or confusing information about expected job behaviors. The relevance of the three role stressors just described has been magnified by a meta- analysis that found role overload, role conflict, and role ambiguity can all result in less organizational citizenship behav- ior. Part of the problem is that the stressors hinder the employees’ ability to pursue their achievement goals. The role-stressed employee might think, “I’m too stressed to bother going out of my way to help others.” A powerful stressor for knowledge workers is information overload. Workers often have to process so much information that their brain circuits become overloaded, leading to stress and lowered concentration. Attempting to accomplish more than one task at a time, such as keeping your eyes focused on three different monitors, can create anxiety for many—but not all—people. E. ORGANIZATIONAL APPROACHES TO STRESS MANAGEMENT Negative stress is disruptive to productivity and employee well-being, prompting organizations to engage in stress management. Here we look at several illustrative approaches to stress management. Emotional support from an immediate superior can help group members cope better with job stress. One study compared the illness rate between two groups of employees who faced comparable heavy stressors. Employees who felt they had their manager’s support suffered only half as much illness in 12 months as those who felt they lacked such support. Supportive behaviours that help employees feel more effective include (a) keeping communication P a g e | 114  channels open and (b) providing the right kind of help (such as verbal encouragement or time off from work to recover from a heavy stressor). To help combat negative stress, as well as to promote wellness, many employers offer programs that encourage employees to stay in good physical and mental shape. A wellness program is thus a formal organization-sponsored activity to help employees stay well and avoid illness. Workshops, seminars, activities, and medical procedures offered in a wellness program include the following: medical examinations, stress-management techniques, smoking- cessation programs, and preventive health care. (You will recall from Chapter 7 that positive reinforcement is often used to motivate employees to participate actively in a wellness program.) Many advocates say wellness programs are preventing health problems and helping workers reduce and prevent stress. The effectiveness of wellness programs, however, is controversial. Payoffs to the organization are difficult to measure because the programs have so many components.57 Part of the problem is that not all individuals pushed by their employers to enter a wellness program are highly motivated to stay well and reduce stress. You should therefore not let group results discourage you from staying well and managing stress. The accompanying Organizational Behavior in Action box describes a comprehensive wellness program offered by a well-known technology company. Another approach to help employees combat stress is to give them the opportunity to nap on company premises. Napping is one of the most effective methods of treating and preventing stress. Everyday job stress can often be alleviated by taking a 15- to 20-minute nap to restore alertness and memory and to decrease the effects of fatigue. For careerminded people, the slogan “You snooze, you win” replaces “You snooze, you lose.” An example of a novel approach by an organization to managing stress is walking meetings, of approximately 20 minutes in length, conducted outside the building (weather permitting). The setting of the meeting provides a pleasant change of scenery from the screens, desks, and walls and also offers physical exercise. The meeting leader makes sure the fresh-air break includes an agenda.58 To increase the success rate of the company, the employer must help its employees alleviate stress by terms of encouraging them to participate in any recreational programs or allowing them a time off of work if deemed necessary. The workplace culture in Japan is the best example of this, employees are allowed to take nap between or during work time because for Japanese employers, this just means that their employees are hardworking on their jobs thus creating a harmonious workplace environment decreasing negative stress and bridging a good relationship between the employer and employees which in return guarantees success through increased productivity. F. INDIVIDUAL APPROACHES TO STRESS MANAGEMENT Techniques individuals can use to manage stress can be divided into three categories: control, symptom management, and removal of the stressor. ▪ Control. Methods of controlling and reducing stress include getting the right emotional support. Receiving social support—encouragement, understanding, and friendship—from other people is a key strategy for coping with work and personal stress. An equally important control technique is to practice good work habits and time management. By establishing priorities and minimizing procrastination, you can gain better control of your life. Gaining control is especially important because feeling out of control is a major stressor. ▪ Symptom Management. Getting appropriate physical exercise is an excellent starting point for symptom management. Physical exercise helps dissipate some of the tension created by work stress and also helps the body ward off future stress-related disorders. One way in which P a g e | 115  exercise helps combat stress is by releasing endorphins. These are morphine-like chemicals produced in the brain that act as painkillers and antidepressants. Another widely applicable symptom-management technique is the relaxation response, a general-purpose method of learning to relax on your own that is a form of meditation. The key ingredient of this technique is to get quiet and comfortable. At the same time, think of the word “one” (or any simple chant or prayer) with every breath for about 10 minutes. The technique slows you down both physiologically and emotionally and at the same time reduces the adverse effects of stress. A major contribution of the relaxation response is that it is a physical state of deep rest that counteracts the harmful effects of fighting stressors.60 The relaxation response and meditation are quite similar to the more modern approach of mindfulness in which people learn to concentrate on the moment to reduce stress and sharpen their focus. ▪ Removal of the Stressor. Removal-of-the-stressor methods of stress management are actions and reappraisals of situations that provide the stressed individual some escape from the stressor. Eliminating the stressor is the most effective escape technique. Implications for Managerial Practice. 1. A manager’s goal should be to maintain optimal levels of conflict and stress in his or her unit. Sometimes this will involve the reduction of conflict; at other times, a modest amount of conflict stimulation may be necessary. 2. Approximately 20 to 30 percent of a manager’s time involves resolving conflict. It is therefore important for a manager to develop effective conflict-resolution skills. A good starting point is to use confrontation and problem solving. 3. Given that an optimal amount of stress facilitates performance, a manager should strive to design the appropriate amount and kinds of stressors for both individuals and groups. Manipulating stressors is much like manipulating the challenge level of a job. Stress can be increased or decreased by manipulating the amount of job responsibility, goal difficulty, tightness of deadlines, amount of supervision, and critical feedback. 4. Managers should encourage team members to embark on a systematic program of stress management, considering today’s turbulent work environment. Workers who are already managing stress well should be encouraged in their efforts. P a g e | 116