Chapter 7-13: The Affective Turn in Digital Society PDF

ZAAN BARNARD CHAPTER 7: Key Concepts: The affective turn * affect/feelings/emotions * affective intensity * friction * flaming * trolling * lulz * cute cat theory * stickiness * grab * resonance * hate speech online The Affective Turn and Digital Society Key Concepts: The affective turn refers to the growing awareness of feelings and emotions in society and culture. Emotions are vital to how people function, but cultural and social research has largely focused on neutral processes like representation, mediation, and signification. The affective turn allows for new perspectives, particularly relevant in relation to digital society. Sociality in digital society is largely driven by different forms of affect, with social exchanges occurring in networks where friction between people and technologies gives rise to emotions of varying intensity. The chapter introduces the theoretical concepts of stickiness, grab, and resonance to help understand some of the emotional aspects of digital society. Friction and Affective Intensity: Questions are raised about the extent to which digital society transforms how emotions are formed and expressed between people. Questions about mediation and emotions have become more acute in digital society due to the internet's more elaborate modes of sharing, communicating, performance, and display. The internet and social media generate a new emotional language, new manifestations of emotions, and new ways in which feelings bounce between people. Distinction Between 'Affect', 'Feelings', and 'Emotions': Internet researcher Zizi Papacharissi (2015) explains that 'affect' is an experience of intensity that can often be unconscious, while 'feelings' are personal experiences of affect. Emotions are socially communicated feelings. Understanding Affect in Digital Society Actor-Network Theory and Affect The theory suggests that all subjects, including humans and nonhumans, become what they are through their connections with other subjects. Internet researchers Susanna Paasonen, Ken Hillis, and Michael Petit argue that networks generate friction, which in turn generates affect, feelings, and emotions. Affective Attachments in Digital Society People online articulate desires, deal with trust issues, and foster interests, activities, and relationships of deep felt importance. Online connections and disconnections are shaped by fluctuating dynamics of love, desire, and wanting. Some internet research assumes that most users are rational and enlightened, which fails to account for the passionate character of many online exchanges. The Role of Affect in Digital Society Emotions have been an important element of internet use since the early days of the 1 ZAAN BARNARD medium. Discussion groups, social connectivity, and motivations to share and circulate content are all about intensities and sensations created in online encounters. Paasonen argues that interactions in digital society are driven by a search for intensity, which is what makes users of digital tools and platforms interested and motivated to move across sites, networks, and discussions. Affect in Digital Society Affect is a force that attaches people to certain communities, networks, topics, and tools. Calls for support, aggressive outbursts, descriptions of harm and hurt, or waves of sarcasm or amusement are the types of actions and experiences that knit digital society together. Some commentators argue that social media is generally biased towards fostering only positive affect, such as the lack of a dislike button on Facebook. Stickiness and Emotions in Social Media Sara Ahmed's Concept of Stickiness Stickiness refers to the presence of emotional content on social media platforms. Stickiness can be measured by the frequency of reactions, comments, shares, likes, or dislikes. Paasonen's View on Mixed and Negative Affect Paasonen argues that mixed and negative affect exist online. Like-buttons can be used in ambiguous ways, and memes or cat pictures can have unsettling qualities. The internet is a space where affect is activated and expressed, arousing and transmitting emotions, and influencing how those emotions are shaped and displayed. Discussion on Social Media Grusin suggests social media tends towards expressing positive affect. Paasonen suggests a shift from a textual perspective to consider the sensory and embodied aspects of digital sociality. She suggests avoiding 'logocentric' views, which rely on linguistic models for understanding social life. Instead, we should consider how the content affects users, a challenge that poses a delicate analytical challenge. Media Research and the Impact of Online Porn Popular genres like sentimental 'weepies', thrillers, and low comedy have historically been devalued due to their bodily felt nature. Online porn, despite its widespread use, is under-researched and is consumed by at least a quarter of all Western internet users. Pornography attaches the viewing body to its affective loop, involving intimacy that can be desirable, surprising, unwanted, or disturbing. Theresa Senft (2008) argues that people are 'grabbed' by its content, a dynamic characteristic of digital society. Engaging with the internet and social media is different from engaging with television or cinematic fiction. The difference now is in the technological makeup and the related modes of engagement. Users search, browse, bookmark, click, download, upload, leave comments, rate, log in, 2 ZAAN BARNARD and compare, rendering engagement with social media as having a stronger visceral character than many other forms of media use. Paasonen suggests the concept of resonance, which describes how users attach themselves to the content and how they resonate or dissonate with each other. Quantifying and Flattening Emotions in Computational Research The rise of sentiment analysis in computational research methods has led to a growing interest in mapping people's emotions through online posts. Sentiment analysis, a method of extracting subjective opinions and attitudes from language, has been used in business contexts to assess consumer reviews of products or services. With the advent of social media, sentiment analysis has been repurposed as a method for mapping people's emotions in various areas. Sentiment analysis tools are increasingly developed to map sentiment based on internet abbreviations and to account for emoticons and emojis. However, tracking and quantifying people's emotions is controversial, with the use of 'emotion tracking' in marketing to measure the level of certain emotions to tailor products and services. The affordances provided by different platforms decide which emotions can be expressed and how. Facebook's expansion of its 'like' feature in 2016 allowed users to express emotions through a set of'reactions', contributing to an oversimplification and flattening of emotional expression. The primitive level of user feedback encouraged by online services is a feature, not a bug, and data with built-in rankings and categories is easily quantifiable. Flaming and Online Communication Flaming refers to online social actions expressing aggression, insults, and hatred towards other users. Cultural critic Mark Dery defined flaming as 'vitriolic' online exchanges conducted in public, arguing that digital communication can make hostility escalate faster online than in face-to- face situations. Scholars argue that flaming is not a direct effect of computer-mediated communication, but rather a result of social context and group norms. Joseph Kayany (1998) suggests that flaming is a facet of human communication in general, not just one found on the internet. Peter Moor (2007) found that users flamed more often when commenters before them had done so, suggesting that people tend to conform to norms of flaming. Some forms of flaming can be done jokingly, as a form of friendly online 'trash-talking'. Online debates can contribute to making affect sharper and reducing people into stereotypes. Love Online Online relationships tend to be more intimate and emotionally intense than offline ones. Research has explored different aspects of love online, with a focus on self-presentation strategies in online dating. Online hate is not necessarily the case, as anonymity can be essential for peaceful expression of identities and views. Cyberbullying and Its Impact on Society 3 ZAAN BARNARD Networked digital tools and platforms facilitate the emergence of cyber mobs, with extremist groups being among the earliest users of the internet. Online interaction can lead to antisocial behavior and participation in bigoted mobs, with online communication tending towards group polarisation. The internet can radicalize people, pulling fence-sitters into either/or positions. The networked and viral character of online communication can worsen the damage made by spreading abuse both far and wide. Cyberbullying can trivialize the feelings of people who become targets of hate and harassment online. Communication on online platforms enables a range of different forms of cyberbullying, stretching from individual incidents to full-blown international hate campaigns. Cyberbullying has unique characteristics due to its happening digitally, making it even more harmful than face-to-face bullying. Highprofile examples of online hate campaigns have targeted women in technology, female politicians and journalists, and minority groups in general. The internet and social media affordances can function to maintain and exacerbate existing societal patterns of racial and gendered oppression. Trolling and Lulz in Digital Society The Complexity of Online Interaction Trolling is a form of intentional provocation that stirs up emotions and generates strong reactions. It differs from flaming, which translates into hostility, aggression, and insults. Trolling involves posting opinions that one does not hold, being intently categorical, and making abruptly off-topic comments. The Roots of Trolling The roots of trolling can be traced back to newsgroups and shock sites. The infamous /b/ discussion board, a subset of the anonymous online forum 4chan, became a breeding ground for trolling. Internet trolls range from individuals lacking empathy, racist, sexist, or homophobic, to those who can be respectful but also engage in trolling. Trolling Behaviors Trolling refers to a spectrum of occasional and persistent behaviours, from aggressive acts of harassment to harmless acts of misleading others for humorous purposes. Trolls always self-identify as a troll, and their motivation is 'lulz', a variation of the internet slang acronym-cum-word for laughter (lol). Trolling is done 'for the lulz', extracting 'lulz' from a situation, but it also means that trolls' targets become objectified pawns. Trolling and Attachment Trolling is based on the idea that nothing should be taken seriously and revels in the attachmentfree aspects of the internet and social media. It depends on its targets not being anonymous or willing to disclose some of their offline vulnerabilities and attachments. Trolling: A Tool for Cultural Disruption and Political Impact 4 ZAAN BARNARD Trolling is a form of online behavior that aims to provoke or start an argument, often in provocative and confrontational ways. Trolling is a form of disruption, disorder, challenge, play, and humor that targets social norms, social structures, and authorities. It has become increasingly tied to hateful provocation, often associated with far-right politics online. Trolling has become a threat to democracy when it draws on misogyny, racism, Islamophobia, and LGBTQ+ discrimination. The 2016 US election saw the rise of trolling in politics, with alt-right followers mastering the art of trolling. Trolling is now mainstream and contributes significantly to shaping the political conversation, not only in the US but also among Trump supporters. Jason Hannan argues that trolling is becoming 'the new normal' in politics, where disagreements can be turned into battles where evidence and logic play second fiddle to popularity and shock. Trolling is pushing politics towards a new language, which is not based on shared standards of logic, truth, and civility, opening up a 'Wild West of communication'. The Power of Cuteness in Internet Culture Reddit, a social news and entertainment site, is organized into'subreddits', with hundreds of millions of visitors. 'Aww' is one of these subreddits, focusing on 'posting pictures, videos, and stories of things that make you go, 'Aww!' from utter cuteness'. Cuteness has become a 'powerful cultural medium', expressed in Japanese pop culture and internet culture. Internet memes, particularly LOLCats, draw on the 'affective appeal of cuteness'. Ethan Zuckerman argues that the contemporary internet was designed for the dissemination of cute pictures of cats. Zuckerman uses cute cats as a metaphor for user-created, day-to-day content. Zuckerman argues that social networks established among people who create, share, like, and comment on 'cute cats' have a latent capacity to be mobilised for political activism. The underlying potential for forceful action relies on the affective appeal of the communication infrastructure and the affective intensities attached to the cute cats themselves. Papacharissi's Research on Political Activism and Digital Sociality Papacharissi argues that the internet and social media facilitate political expressions grounded in affect. She suggests that people become connected through affectively charged discourses, and feelings about private and public issues are key driving forces for networked publics. Papacharissi and Paasonen see affect as a key element of digital sociality. Networked technologies create affective connections among people through 'affective gestures', which can take the form of liking a post on Facebook, endorsing an item in a news aggregator, uploading and sharing a YouTube video, or using a meme generator to create and share a simple message via a photograph. The affective character of digital media can mobilize networked publics for various social and political reasons and aims. Discussion on Online Sociality and Affective Intensities Online sociality is driven by affective intensities, which can come from feelings of 'aargh' 5 ZAAN BARNARD (flaming), 'lulz' (torching), 'eww' (being shocked or disgusted), or 'aww' (as in cute cats). The chapter explores how the act of moving around the internet can easily become imbued with intense emotions. The chapter also discusses the themes or dimensions of online affectivity such as flaming, hate speech, and trolling, and the fascination of online culture with cuteness. The chapter also addresses how popular metrics and methods may contribute to a flattening of how emotions are expressed and perceived on the internet. CHAPTER 8: POWER AND EXPLOITATION Key Concepts: digital divide * digital citizenship * power law * scale-free networks * preferential attachment * charismatic authority * political economy * digital labour * playbour * the gig economy *cybertypes Digital Society and Power Relations Digital Divides and Digital Competence The internet and social media can challenge and redefine power structures by enabling self-liberation, bonding, organization, and empowerment. The internet's structural level is not random, with a rich-get-richer logic where users with many followers, readers, or friends gain more. Marginalized users tend to remain unimportant. Sociological theories suggest that social groups demand some form of social structure and leadership, which may not be conducive to creating open and democratic spaces online. Digital Citizenship Digital citizenship refers to the opportunities and resources a person has to participate online in society and politics. In digital society, digital citizenship is becoming an increasingly large part of political citizenship. Different degrees of access to digital citizenship can have important consequences for democratic participation. Government information and services are increasingly delivered over the internet, and many political campaigns and discussions of political issues take place online. Online Activity and Political Participation There is a positive relationship between online activity and political participation more generally. Internet use in general makes it more likely that a person will vote in elections. However, political scientists argue that the internet and social media can update political institutions and improve citizens' trust in governments. Systematic inequalities in the capacity to use digital tools persist despite the exponential increase in internet use. Being a digital citizen requires regular access to the internet and effective use of the technology. The Second-Level Digital Divide: A Sociologist's Perspective Eszter Hargittai (2002) introduced the concept of a second-level digital divide, dividing people with access to the internet into those who use it and those who don't. 6 ZAAN BARNARD The first-level digital divide is the division between those who have access to the internet and those who don't, but this becomes less relevant as more people gain access and use it actively. The second-level digital divide is the division between people who have access to and use the internet but have different levels of skill in its use. Hargittai and Paul DiMaggio (2001) suggest that digital divides can exist along five dimensions: Technical means, Autonomy of use, Skill (internet competence), Social support, and Different uses. Technical means refers to the quality and adequacy of hardware, software, and connections, while autonomy of use refers to the degree of control over the use of digital social tools and platforms. Skill refers to the knowledge and understanding of different types of tools and platforms, navigation and interaction, and troubleshooting related problems. Social support refers to the degree to which users can draw on social support from more experienced users when they reach the limits of their own skills. Different uses of digital technology, such as income and education, affect the range of purposes the internet is used for. The concept of a digital divide and its research need to be revisited and renewed due to the far-reaching consequences of how different social stratifications intersect with the digital. The Matthew Effect and the Internet Robert Merton's Matthew Effect Sociologist Robert Merton's 1968 study on the Matthew effect in science posits that recognition of already recognized contributions builds stronger while less recognized contributions remain low. This pattern applies to social areas, including the internet. Albert-Laszlo Barabasi's Research on the Internet Barabasi's research in the late 1990s revealed a pattern where most websites had very small numbers of links, while a few extremely popular sites had an extraordinary large number of links. This pattern followed a mathematical expression called a power law, where many small events coexist with a few large ones. The Internet as a Scale-Free Network Barabasi's discovery that the internet was a'scale-free network', organized around influential hubs (popular websites) revolutionized network science. The model developed by Barabasi and his colleague Reka Albert demonstrated that many networks may have a set of large hubs that will be crucial to defining the topology of the network. The Barabasi-Albert Model The model recognizes the importance of hubs (centres of power) and departed from existing models that focused on random connection of nodes. Barabasi and Albert's key idea was that in real networks, linking is never random. Networks tend to self-organise as they grow and evolve. The process of network growth is marked by preferential attachment, meaning nodes with more connections have a higher chance of acquiring new connections. This theory is applicable to the scientific community, where highly cited papers are more likely to be cited even more. 7 ZAAN BARNARD Digital Society and the Concept of 'The Long Tail' The concept of 'the long tail' suggests that small things will survive more easily in a digital society due to the networked multitude of people and interests. The internet and social media have structural properties that encourage different forms of uneven distribution - visibility, clicks, likes, links, and other social resources. Some believe the internet is a more equal environment than many other social settings, promoting social networks where all nodes are equal. However, the suggestion that those who are connected often get even more connected is causing some to question these assumptions about democratisation. Authority and Dominance in Digital Online Networks Mathieu O'Neil argues that the internet is full of hierarchies, and that authority is a crucial element of social interaction in digital online networks. To organize and express themselves, participants need to exercise some sort of quality control over their activities. Trust and reliability are also important for online self-expression and organization to work. O'Neil's explanation of how authority emerges online is through the notion of online tribes, which are online formations based on direct forms of grassroots democracy and a feeling of closeness to others. O'Neil draws on Max Weber's view that authority is a fundamental feature of all complex systems of human relationships, such as the internet. O'Neil suggests that power online is conferred through a new type of organizational arrangement, which he calls online tribal bureaucracy. This arrangement can explain the structures of governance in groups that might seem at first to be anti-authoritarian. The contradiction between the dual requirements of an environment wanting to remain completely open, non-bureaucratic, and without hierarchies, but also needing some sort of system to achieve its goals. Digital Media and Group Interaction: The Role of Leaders O'Neil (2009) suggests that groups will always need leaders, or cyberchiefs, in digital and offline social settings. He uses the concept of bureaucracy to argue that such systems are not always centralised. O'Neil identifies the unique characteristic of online tribal bureaucracy, which combines charismatic authority with bureaucratic structure. Max Weber's theory about social domination suggests three types of authority: rational- legal, tradition-based, and charismatic. Charismatic leaders emerge with authority in certain contexts and for certain amounts of time, such as YouTube stars, hacktivist icons, or key individuals in micro-social settings. Online projects, ranging from full-on activist campaigns to social 'projects', center around charismatic leaders who maintain formal equality between participants. O'Neil's view of digital society is marked by 'permanent conflictuality', a recurring sequence of action that proceeds from a claim being made, facts being examined, deliberation ensues, and a resolution is reached and accepted. O'Neil argues that while digital media has an inherently democratic character, it also has a 'bureaucratic' character, requiring some sort of structure and leadership. Leaders and authorities emerge in digital society, despite some optimistically imagined otherwise. The structure of a group requires a certain quota of its members for leadership, as argued 8 ZAAN BARNARD by Simmel. Political Economy and Digital Labour: A Critical Perspective The political economy of the internet and digital society is analyzed from the perspective of political economy. The analysis focuses on how power relations, rooted in production and consumption, shape all processes and outcomes. The complex power relations between mass media, digital/social media, and the broader social, political, and economic structure are crucial to understanding digital society. The political economy perspective is key as it directs focus to important dimensions that are often overlooked in studying the internet and social media. The digital society must be studied more critically, focusing on questions of economy and ownership, who profits from what is happening, who controls what people think and do, and the digital society as an arena of continued historical struggles in capitalism. Digital society enables old forms of structural dominance to inhabit new forms online. The industry of digital media hardware and software is based on accelerated forms of global capitalist production, including many forms of labour and exploitation. Low-paid digital 'knowledge workers' in the 'information industry' are part of the precariat, a heterogeneous working class without job security. The gig economy, a form of labour carried out by all users of the internet and social media, is also seen as part of an exploited workforce. The clicks and content of users become a form of data commodity, which can be sold by social media companies to advertising clients. Digital Labour Perspective and Social Media's Capitalist Nature Fuchs (2017) argues that the digital labour perspective, which suggests the internet and social media provide a participatory, creative, and democratic environment, is flawed. He argues that corporations and their capitalist logic dominate digital society, which is still a capitalist society. Fuchs provides empirical examples of how corporations dominate social media and the internet, with politics being a minority interest. Social media does not automatically constitute a public sphere or participatory democratic space in a capitalist world. The boundary between play and labour has become blurred, leading to increased exploitation of play labour. David Gauntlett (2018) argues that while the exploitation thesis is true on the macro-level of digital society, it is harder to evaluate at the individual level. Gauntlett suggests that people may not perceive their work on social media as 'work' for which they would expect to be paid. The digital labour perspective suggests that people are oblivious to the true nature of social reality and may have a wrongful perception of the character and consequences of their actions. Gauntlett also points out that most people who create their own content may not feel cheated or enslaved, but may be rewarded by their creative process. Digital Society and Stereotypes The digital age has led to the perpetuation of racial, gendered, and other stereotypes, which are often worsened by online hate speech and disinhibition. 9 ZAAN BARNARD The internet and social media allow people to create and maintain flexible identities, potentially making gender, race, sexual identity, ethnicity, and (dis)ability freely chosen. The 'virtuality' of digital platforms can enable performances that are not strictly adherence to prevailing norms, potentially undermining existing perspectives on gender. Traditional gender norms and stereotypes align well with the various uses of digital technology. Sociologists Eileen Green and Carrie Singleton argue that the digital age should focus on broader structural inequalities and localised differences in how the digital works. The theory about the social shaping of technology suggests that technology is (re-)shaped by the social while the social is (re-)shaped by technology. Digital tools and platforms are socially embedded and shaped by interaction and relations, which can lead to identity tourism. Identity tourism is not about honoring diversity but about playing with identities as 'amusing prostheses to be donned and shed' without any real consequences. Gender, race, and other categorisations will continue to play a part in digital society in new ways. Cybertypes and Cultural Stereotypes in Digital Society Cybertypes are not just cultural stereotypes from pre-digital society, but are a result of internet-specific processes. Cybertypes are often shaped by existing hegemonic discourses, such as racial and gender stereotypes. Despite some utopian rhetoric, race, gender, and other social categories matter online and offline. People who spend time on the internet are already shaped by these categorisations in society and culture. Even minorities or discriminated groups with digital tools can assume 'fluid' identities, but are often pulled back into the material realities of prejudice and discrimination. Despite the digitalization, social inequality and discrimination will persist. Digital media use is gendered, with the military connection, 'nerd', 'geek', and 'hacker' culture, and the idea of being good at maths to deal with computers, all masculinized. The idea of the archetypal computer user as a white, middle-class young man is a stereotype, excluding many women and girls. Digital Society and Its Impact on Women's Agency Digital Technology and Its Role in Society Digital technology has made it widespread, domesticated, and readily available. However, computer science is still largely a male domain. A nuanced understanding of inclusion and exclusion in digital society is needed. The Role of Feminism in Digital Society The internet and social media have contributed to the struggle to enhance women's agency. These technologies have opened up new possibilities for equality through emancipatory uses. Cyberfeminist Perspectives Cyberfeminist scholars like Donna Haraway and Sadie Plant have documented the process of enhancing women's agency through digital technologies. 10 ZAAN BARNARD However, sociologist Judy Wajcman criticizes the utopian view of cyberspace as a virtual space of freedom and transcendence from the body, including gender identities. The Reality of Cyberfeminist Perspectives Empirical studies show that the most visited websites by women are shopping and health sites, and women's use of social media reaffirms traditional views of femininity. Wajcman argues that technology can still reproduce or reinforce gender norms and divisions relating to other social categorisations. The #MeToo Movement The #MeToo movement was not a case of digital technology bringing about change and justice. It was based on women's highly physical and materially situated experiences, which could be digitally retold and revisited through platforms with a longer reach and stronger impact. Political Dimensions of Digital Society As society has become digital, so has political life. There is a mechanism on the internet where those who are already powerful can easily become even more powerful. The chapter highlights that the online world is not immune to hierarchies and differentials of power CHAPTER 9: ACTIVISM AND MOBILISATION Key Concepts Disruptive spaces * the public sphere * the private sphere * cybersalons * monitorial citizens * citizen journalism * networked social movements * communication power * personal action frames * connective action * repertoires of contention Digital Media's Impact on Society and Power Structures The impact of digital media on society is complex and varied, with varied views on the extent of its transformation and the direction of this transformation. Research shows that digital tools and platforms can successfully challenge, provoke, and overthrow prevailing power structures, as seen in hashtag movements like #BlackLivesMatter, #MeToo, and #FridaysForFuture. Digital media has contributed to the alignment of social movements and challenging traditional forms of political representation. Disruptive spaces, emerging online spaces that function as a springboard for movements, are emerging online spaces that embody attempts at obstructing or providing an alternative to prevailing power structures. The key to realizing the potential of disruptive spaces lies in deploying emancipatory use of media, where each receiver is also a transmitter, and where interaction and collective production create a self-organising social system that mobilises people. The study of disruptive spaces requires a cyber-realist perspective, acknowledging the constant struggle between networks of domination and networks of liberation in digital 11 ZAAN BARNARD society. Digital media plays a role in offering a public sphere for democratic exchanges and deliberation, and in changing the conditions surrounding participatory processes. Rapid technological and social changes in the media landscape have added greater complexity to political issues, blurring the boundaries between the public and the private spheres. The internet, and its social tools and platforms for interaction and communication, has contributed to changes in the public sphere and in political behaviors and activity in general. The Concept of a Public Sphere Jurgen Habermas, a sociologist and critical theorist, introduced the concept of a public sphere. The public sphere is a social realm that channels civil society, facilitating conversations, exchange, and idea formation. Habermas' theory was developed in his book, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, which has relevance due to the internet. Habermas argued that there had been a historical division between public and private spheres, with the rise of capitalism leading to 'rational-critical debate' among the literate public. The 'bourgeois public sphere' was an arena mixing the private and public, with 'private' people joining together to form a 'public'. Habermas saw this as the beginning of a process eroding the public sphere, with media becoming cheaper and more powerful. Habermas argued that society needs a strong public sphere to keep top-down power and domination in check. The internet and social media have given some hope for a return of a functioning public sphere. However, views differ on whether the internet and social media blur boundaries between the public and the private, or if they are a user-driven social realm for conversations and exchange. Christian Fuchs (2017) analyzed Twitter as a public sphere, finding little political discussion and a dominated space dominated by entertainment. Fuchs questioned whether the short-message format of Twitter provides good opportunities for meaningful political debates and if it risks falling into Habermas' category of 'pseudo- public spheres'. Despite these challenges, social media platforms have had significant impacts on elections and hashtag movements, but their impact may still follow patterns of biased attention. Internet as a Public Spherical: A Habermasian Perspective Key Criteria for Public Spherical Everyone has access to the internet. Participants can freely engage in an unrestricted way. Internet penetration rate is high in North America and Western Europe, and low in Africa and South Asia. Role of Internet Competence and Skills Active users engage with content through various channels. Passive, isolated mass audience members consume content on the same platforms. 12 ZAAN BARNARD Interactivity and the Internet The internet represents a break from traditional media relations. It requires users to 'act' by clicking, making connections, and deciding what they want to do. The internet offers hope in a dystopia of passive mass audiences. Challenges and Limitations The internet is largely colonised by mass media content. There is a risk that the commercial center of gravity of the internet draws interactive users towards the less dynamic'mass centre'. Assumptions that the internet has given birth to large numbers of 'cybercitizens' are based on assumptions about political awareness, civic involvement, progressive ideals, anti- authoritarianism, and rational debate. The Evolution of the Public Ssphere Habermas's concept of the public sphere evolved from salons and coffee-houses in the 1700s to a heavily mediatised public sphere in the 1900s. Mass-circulated newspapers and radio removed direct forms of debate from the public. Since the 1960s, there has been a shift from traditional broadcast and print to online content. News and public affairs reporting has evolved from a largely oligopolistic media environment to a diverse, complex media ecology. There is a need for updated concepts to account for the fragmentation of the public sphere, which now consists of a range of diverging publics. Conceptual solutions include separating the public sphere into different domain publics, a networked public sphere, or public sphericules. The Internet has counterbalanced the impersonal and asymmetrical character of broadcasting by reintroducing deliberative elements in electronic communication. The potential of the ever-evolving social media ecology for civil society will likely continue to be debated, as it continues to challenge understandings of what a public sphere may be. Calhoun (1998) argues that the Internet mainly makes it easier for us to do some things we were already doing and allows those with the resources to do some things they already wanted to do. Cybersalons and Public Spaces: A New Concept Jodi Dean introduces the concept of cybersalons, suggesting that the internet and social media function similarly to Habermas' public sphere. However, online interactions differ from traditional salons and coffee-houses. Dean argues that the internet and social media can function similarly to Habermas' public sphere, but with a new perspective. She highlights the need for a new concept that can handle the networked complexity of online communication and interaction. The internet resists being compiled into a normative vision of politics and the public sphere, highlighting the need for a more nuanced understanding of politics and the public sphere. Dean argues that a unitary and top-down understanding of democratic deliberation will hinder identifying new terrains of contestation and debate. Online interaction draws on disembodiedness, plurality, and uncertainty of identity, changing the parameters for the type of public sphere that can emerge. Dean emphasizes the need to pose questions of inclusion in the public sphere anew, 13 ZAAN BARNARD considering the fluid and multifaceted identities that exist online. She suggests that digital society demands more than just being included in a'salon'; it demands mobility, adaptability, and conformity. Dean suggests that politics is about unequal exchanges among people with different views and ways of reasoning. Digital Society and the Role of the Private Spheric Habermas' Theory of the Public Spheric Papacharissi (2010) argues that the public sphere, a counterpart to the private sphere, is crucial in digital society. Habermas believed that mixing the public and private spheres would diminish the power of the public sphere. Michael Warner (2002: 23) argues that being in public is a privilege that requires filtering or repressing something seen as private. The Emergence of New Civic Engagement Papacharissi (2010) highlights that digital culture's increased focus on intimate and personal aspects does not automatically mean a low level of civic engagement. New ways of being active in society are emerging along with digitally networked tools and platforms. Political engagement now happens in many different spheres, not just clearly political ones. Private acts that are digitally enabled and self-motivated can have a public political effect. The Hybrid Dynamic in Digital Society A private sphere is opening up as an arena for people to express new forms of participation and citizenship. People discuss politics mixed up with other topics, dealing with things that belong to the public sphere in new ways within a hybrid sphere. Digital civil society consists of atomised actions that happen in a range of different spaces which may be both public and private. The internet offers a tangible infrastructure for mobilising private considerations politically. Digital Democracy and Citizen Journalism The Challenges of Democracy in the Digital Age The rise of the internet and social media has led to a shift in civil society and public debate. The development of new platforms and new audience behaviors have altered news production and the conditions under which media companies and journalists operate. News production is now a collective effort between journalists and members of the public, with a shift from one-way communication to dialogical communication. Monitorial Citizens in Digital Society People in digital society are described as monitorial citizens, scanning the informational environment to stay alert and mobilize around issues. They engage in environmental surveillance more than information gathering, looking inactive but ready for action if necessary. This passive-active form of citizenship allows people to stay informed, networked, and ready for action. Citizen Journalism: A Phenomenon 14 ZAAN BARNARD Digital citizen journalism has evolved from online postings related to the Clinton-Lewinsky sex scandal in 1998, web-based journalism during the war in Kosovo in 1999, and people's sharing of eyewitness accounts, photos, and video footage on 9/11 in 2001. The role of online networked circulation of events of citizen witnessing in times of drama or trauma has contributed to the shape of citizen journalism. Citizen Journalism's Evolution Digitally networked communication and user-created content in times of crisis have shaped citizen journalism into what it is today. Citizen journalism is about the capacity of ordinary people to bear witness to and comment on things that happen in the world, big or small. As digital technology and the internet have increasingly made it possible for people to act upon impulses, citizen journalism has transformed journalism from being seen as a domain exclusive to professional participants. Communication Power and Social Movements Networked Social Movements Emergence of new wave of protests and revolutionary social action around 2010. Examples include workers' rights, environmental, peace, and women's movements. Movements like the Arab Spring, Indignados anti-austerity movement, and Occupy protests against social and economic inequality. Hashtag Movements Emergence of large-scale hashtag movements like #BlackLivesMatter and #MeToo. Twitter hashtags have become a platform for marginalized groups to mobilize and make their voices heard. Can be used to create diverse networks of resistance for social change advocacy. Autonomy of Social Networks Networks formed by connection and interaction on the internet and social media are autonomous and potentially disruptive spaces. These networks are beyond the control of governments and corporations that have monopolised most communication channels throughout history. The Impact of Digitally Networked Social Campaigns Castells' (2009) theory of communication power suggests that power relationships are constitutive of society. Power can be exercised in a violent manner, but power built on coercion alone will be short-lived. The fundamental struggle is the struggle over the construction of meaning in people's minds, which happens through symbolic manipulation. Mass Self-Communication in Digital Society Mass self-communication has the potential to reach a huge multiplicity of receivers due to the increasing horizontality of communication networks. Digital communication is multimodal, embedded in a complex system of networked text, images, video, and relationships. Mass self-communication offers a technological platform for the construction of autonomous social actors, both individual and collective. 15 ZAAN BARNARD Connective Action: A New Mode of Political Action Bennett and Segerberg (2012) describe new modes of contentious action like the Arab Spring, Indignados, and Occupy as 'personal action frames'. These movements use digital media beyond mere message sending and receiving, relying on digital peer-to-peer communication in densely layered networks. Despite appearing loose and informal, these movements sustain themselves and gain strength over time. These movements communicated that they were leaderless and wanted labor unions, political parties, and radical groups to stay at the margins. The power of these movements was due to their organization in invisible ways, without branding their actions with any particular organizations. The new movements function by casting a net of public engagement that is broader, drawing on easy-to-personalize action themes, even if those themes are rooted in deep- reaching injustices based on collective identifications such as race and gender. Digitally networked movements often spread their ideas in the form of easily personalised and meme-like pieces of activist raw material. Personal action frames are inclusive and enable a large variety of different individual reasons for people manifesting or contesting something. The power of personal action frames can be explained by the more demanding nature of building and spreading collective identifications than personalised ones. Connective action is an alternative to the model of collective action, requiring more time, effort, and money. Connective Action in Digital Society Connective action is a growing form of political engagement in digital society, where formal organizations lose influence over individuals. It occurs when communication becomes a dominant part of the organizational structure. Collective action relies on high levels of organizational resources for forming collective identities, while connective action is based on personalized sharing of content across media networks. Connective action transforms the core dynamics of the action carried out, drawing on people's co-production and co-distribution of ideas. When digital social platforms coordinate and scale the networks of action, something similar to collective action can become the result. Connective action empowers movements by connecting personal ideas and resources with networks of others, making them highly empowered from the start. The Role of Protocols in Digital Society Digital media researcher Alex Galloway (2004) discusses how 'control exists after decentralisation'. He argues that protocols are at the center of all digital tools and platforms that use the internet. The internet rests on a contradiction between two opposing machines: the one assigning IP addresses to devices distributes control among a large number of autonomous agents, and the one translating IP addresses into URLs organizes control rigidly into a centralized and hierarchical database. Social media platforms offer fairly open environments for people to express themselves, but also allow owners to ban, censor, or 'deplatform' users as they wish. 16 ZAAN BARNARD Governments can strike back against protesters and other activists by censoring, blocking, or shutting down internet services. To successfully leverage the affordances of digital tools and platforms, activists must be able to deploy 'counter-protocological forces' through tactical media. Digital Activism and Social Action Role of Code in Social Action Cyberfeminism, a form of tactical media, has been successful due to its ability to disrupt protocol. Successful digital activism can be likened to bugs, crashes, and viruses, which can propel technology or society in new directions. Repertoires of Controversy in Social Movements Social movements rely on different repertoires of contention, which means they have different tools and methods available to them. Charles Tilly (1977) argued that every means of collective action belongs to a familiar repertoire of collective actions. Modern repertoires enabled movements to be more enduring, lasting longer across space and time. Emergence of a New Digital Repertoire of Controversy Earl and Kimport (2011) identified a rupture in this historically persistent pattern with the emerging digital repertoire of contention. Movements in digital society are mostly disconnected from larger, conventional social movements and can be short, sporadic, and episodic. Digital contention is not necessarily about politics in the narrow sense, or even about 'important' issues. A new form of activism is emerging, based on swarms, seeming randomness, or fragmentation, yet with a new sense of coordination. Chapter Summary The chapter focuses more on resistance 'from below' than dominance 'from above'. Digital media enables citizens to scrutinize those in power in new ways, such as citizen journalism. Digital media have become popular tools for social movement mobilisation, with a new digital repertoire of contention emerging. CHPATER 10: DATAFICATION AND ALGORITHMS Key Concepts: Datafication * big data * surveillance capitalism * algorithms * algorithmic power * algorithmic literacy * calculated publics * automation * data justice Datafication and Surveillance Capitalism Concept of Datafication Datafication refers to the increasing role of various forms of data in society and culture. This includes the collection of demographic, profiling, social media data, and behavioural data. 17 ZAAN BARNARD Big Data Big data refers to the handling and analysis of massively large datasets. It is defined by volume, velocity, and variety, with additional criteria such as exhaustivity, relationality, veracity, and value. The two most important characteristics of big data are velocity and exhaustivity, capturing entire systems in real-time. Big Data as a Cultural, Technological, and Scholarly Phenomenon Big data is a cultural, technological, and scholarly phenomenon that combines technology, analysis, and mythology. It involves the collection and analysis of data about internet users, and the process of feeding that data back to users through search recommendations or targeted advertising. Datafication and Surveillance Capitalism Shoshana Zuboff (2019) argues that we live in the age of surveillance capitalism, where data on human lives is increasingly used as raw materials to be translated into actionable behavioural data. Despite the rapid collection of data, there is much deliberation over what the data should be used for and who should decide. Zuboff warns that the emerging big data age can become like an unquestionable machinery, a self-determining order that individuals cannot understand but must submit to. The Importance of a Critical Perspective Life in 2050 will be decided by the choices we make now, especially the political language we use when discussing 'big data' and datafication. Society and technology are mutually shaped, and our social reality has no fixed meaning, aside from the meanings we collectively ascribe to it. Datafication and Surveillance Capitalism Datafication and Its Impact Datafication refers to the unstructured data generated by online behaviors and dispersed in various forms such as sensors, surveillance cameras, street views, satellites, and databases of governments and corporations. These data traces are user-generated and consist of byproducts of our online and everyday lives. Companies like Google and Facebook offer their services to users for free, increasing the amount of 'data exhaust' they can offer to advertisers and other buyers of data. The Ugly Truth of Big Data Much of 'big data' is plucked from our lives without our knowledge or informed consent. Surveillance practices designed to be invisible and undetectable can cause significant harm, both material and political, social and psychological. Surveillance assets and capital, or'surveillance capital', are created as an asset that can attract investments. Controversy and Danger of 'Big Data' The term 'big data' is controversial and dangerous, with some arguing that one person's "big data" is another person's stolen good. The revelations made by Edward Snowden and Christopher Wylie have raised critical awareness of the reality and consequences of surveillance capitalism. 18 ZAAN BARNARD The Concept of 'Raw Materials' for Information The hype surrounding big data analyses contributes to the belief that such data are 'raw materials' for information. Each step of the process in the generation of big data relies on human decisions relating to selection, judgement, interpretation, and action. There is no such thing as raw data, even though the orderliness of neatly harvested and stored big data sets can create a mirage to the contrary. The Development of 'Data Selves' The move towards tracking and monitoring users' movements has given rise to new ways of conceptualising people and their actions. People may increasingly understand themselves as an assemblage of data, leading to the development of 'quantified selves'. Algorithms and Their Role in Society Understanding Algorithms Algorithms are mathematical procedures performed on data to present outputs in the form of other forms of data. They are the procedural logics that undergird all computation. The digital society's reliance on computational tools has turned automation and digital routines into a social key mechanism. The Age of Datafication Algorithms are often seen as a form of 'higher authority'. Despite increasing critical awareness, there is often an air of mystery and obscured agency when discussing algorithms. The Machine-Learning Revolution Algorithms are now ubiquitous in every nook and cranny of civilization. They are woven into the fabric of everyday life, from cell phones to cars, appliances, and toys. Algorithms are not magical but are often surprisingly basic. The Importance of Algorithmic Literacy Algorithmic literacy is about understanding what algorithms do and why they do it, and understanding the consequences for society. It is about resisting the social power of algorithms. Programmed Sociality Algorithms can establish certain forms of sociality by producing the conditions for the sensible and intelligible. They help us decide and select what information is important to us. Role of Algorithms in Society The role of algorithms in society is important as we have turned to algorithms for correct knowledge about reality. The evolution of Google and social media, with their underlying algorithms, has ushered people into a personalised and filtered world. This compartmentalisation and customisation erodes the common ground that people need 19 ZAAN BARNARD to share in order to build community and engage in democratic politics. Understanding Algorithms and Their Social Character Algorithms and databases are often seen as the same phenomenon, but they must be studied separately. Algorithms require data collection before they can generate output or result. Data must be cleaned, ordered, and vetted by site and platform owners. Content deemed 'problematic' can be removed or algorithmically demoted in subtler ways. Indexes are culled of spam, viruses, copyright infringement, pornography, and the obscene, objectionable, or politically contentious. The social character of algorithms is important, as they were designed and devised by them. Algorithms entanglement with users leads to the rise of 'calculated publics'. Algorithms create types of publics that don't exist in the conventional sense. Algorithms can be beneficial in some cases, but can also be exploited to manipulate users. The launch of Twitter's 'algorithmic timeline' in February 2016 led to protests from users. Algorithms are socially constructed, rather than objective and precise. A sociological analysis must unpack the warm human and institutional choices behind these cold mechanisms. The Impact of Algorithms on Digital Society and Democracy Assumptions and Influence of Algorithms Algorithms underpin digital society, the internet, and social media platforms. They contribute to the production and legitimisation of knowledge. Algorithms can act as hidden infrastructures underpinning our lived realities. Negative biases based on gender and race are embedded in algorithms. Social and Political Consequences of Algorithmic Power Algorithmic power arises from the active monitoring of citizens by algorithms. There is a need for the development of algorithmic skills and literacy among people and civil society. There is a need to raise awareness about these issues and adopt a more critical approach. There is a need for 'algorithm transparency'. The Role of Academics and Scholars Academics and scholars have a responsibility to carry out critical research on how algorithms function. A high level of algorithmic literacy can involve citizens more in the development, deployment, and governance of algorithms. The Role of Facebook in Promoting Meaningful Interactions Facebook's strategy to promote'meaningful interactions' and spark conversations could have potential negative consequences. The proliferation of datafication and algorithms is related to processes by which key aspects of social life become increasingly automated. Impact of Automation on Democracy and Participation Automation has affected democracy and participation in negative ways. Examples include instances of 'fake news'/post truth, racism and sexism embedded in 20 ZAAN BARNARD algorithms, scandals surrounding data surveillance and psychometric profiling, and automated disinformation campaigns. Automation also affects society and democracy in more direct ways, such as through automated decision-making systems in welfare administration and police work. Data Justice and Democracy: A Critical Analysis Datafiction and Algorithmic Power The debate on digital technology and democracy is centered around datafication, algorithms, and automation. Critical research offers critical analyses and suggests paths forward, not just predicting doom. Scholars like Chris Bail and Phil Howard have exemplified this approach, suggesting ways to build better democracies amidst potential risks. Data Justice The shift towards datafication and algorithmic power calls for broader forms of data justice. The issues raised by datafication are not primarily technological but relate to longstanding political, economic, and cultural issues. Advocates argue that social forces contribute to the terms on which datafication happens, highlighting the issues of technological determinism. Data Justice Approach Researchers should look empirically at social groups and communities affected by injustices rooted in datafication and examine how this happens. Datafication must be situated historically in relation to longstanding struggles and claims for justice. A wider framework is needed for understanding what is at stake, proposing a '(re)framing of data as a social justice concern' in broad terms. Data Politics The power of data to sort, categorize, and intervene has not yet been explicitly connected to a social justice agenda. Linnet Taylor argues for a middle-ground between prevailing perspectives emphasizing risk and harm and those that uncritically embrace datafication. An adequate perspective must consider issues of both technological engagement and nonengagement, and of datafied visibility and invisibility. Data Justice Perspective and Social Justice The data justice perspective focuses on sociopolitical continuities and technologically- driven transformations. It explores how data collection and processing can exacerbate existing injustices and create new ones. The perspective goes beyond technological, ethical, or legal questions to examine systemic injustices, people's lived experiences, and marginalized groups. Data and datafication are seen as issues that should be addressed by a wider range of movements and groups promoting social justice. Initiatives can invite more voices to articulate injustices and challenge the boundaries of governance and agency. The chapter explores the power exerted through datafication and how it can be challenged. 21 ZAAN BARNARD It introduces the concept of 'surveillance capitalism' and the need for increased algorithmic literacy. Advocates of 'data justice' argue that these processes should be understood in broader terms, considering historical injustices along class, gender, race, and political geography. CHAPTER 11: 22 ZAAN BARNARD SOFTWARE AND DEVICES Key Concepts: Software studies * the link economy * the like economy * digital devices * the internet of things * hyperconnectivity * approximeetings * perpetual contact Software Studies: A Comprehensive Overview Software studies are increasingly important as data, algorithms, and automation become increasingly significant in society and culture. Previously,'software' was primarily used to refer to computer programs and applications, whereas today, it encompasses the set of instructions that instruct technological objects to function in the desired way. The term'software' was first used in relation to computing in 1958 by statistician John Tukey. Software is now as important to modern electronic calculators as its 'hardware', including interpretive routines, compilers, and other aspects of automative programming. Software is considered 'the engine of contemporary societies' by new media theorist Lev Manovich and Friedrich Kittler. Software is not strictly confined to computers; its logic and effects bleed out into the rest of society. There has been an increased interest in the critical analysis of how software enables and limits various social practices. Software is shaped by, and shaping, social interaction, covering a broad variety of objects of study. A substantial part of all applications and services run on remote servers, meaning they can be updated anytime. Software studies aim to show that software is a vital object of study and an area of practice for researchers and thinkers in fields not conventionally associated with'software'. Software has become our interface to the world, others, our memory and our imagination, a universal language through which the world speaks and a universal engine on which the world runs. Software's Transparency and Influence on Digital Society Software's Role in Digital Society Software often becomes a transparent aspect of digital society, despite its crucial role. Software has an 'ideological layer', defining social relations in systematic ways. Software engineering often leads to self-reduction, with abstract automated functions potentially removing humanity. Software Analysis Software design operates on many levels, defining language characteristics, enabling certain uses, and disabling others. Critical questions should be asked about a website or app, asking what it is designed to achieve, what functions are offered, what other functions could have been included, and what assumptions it assumes about its users. This approach allows for a critical analysis of the software, allowing it to be critically analyzed. Natively Digital Things Researchers in software studies are interested in natively digital things, which would not exist without digital media and the internet. 23 ZAAN BARNARD These include hyperlinks, tags, search engine results, archived websites, social networking sites' profiles, and Wikipedia edits. This approach is about an analysis of 'the politics of platforms'. Web-Native Objects and Value Production In the mid-1990s, the most important objects were the hit and the hyperlink. Google introduced the analysis algorithm of PageRank in 1996, which calculates the relative importance of a page. PageRank shifted the value of web resources from the hit to the link as the main measure of relevance. The Link Economy and its Impact on Digital Society The Emergence of Search Engine Optimization (SEO) SEO practices include careful keyword selection, frequent content updates, and spamdexing. 'Link farms' are groups of websites that link to each other to boost their PageRank. Links are seen as a 'pseudomonetary unit', with knowledge about content relationships becoming a 'prime real estate'. The Link Economy and its Power Structure Links are part of a power structure, defining what can be found and defining knowledge. Cultural historian Siva Vaidhyanathan suggests that there has been a 'googlisation' of everything, with Google potentially not delivering what is needed. The Role of Google in the Link Economy Google developed practices to protect the integrity of its system, which is crucial for generating 'good' search results and personalizing searches and ads. As more online activities are tied into user profiles with corporations like Google, Facebook, or Apple, they will have even more data about us in their rapidly-expanding databases. The Evolution of Social Web and Social Media The advent of the social web and social media led to changes in the attribution of value to sites and content. The participatory features of web 2.0 allowed users to be more active in creating connections between sites, accounts, and platforms. The blogsphere became a new collective, aggregated source, freed from the "tyranny of (old media) editors." The emergence of'social buttons' on any website led to more participatory linking practices. Social buttons enabled the submission of, or voting for, posts on platforms like Digg and Reddit. The function of buttons in digital interfaces and apps is to signify the same stable denotation, even though its material basis is gone. Facebook's introduction of the like button in 2009 marked a major transformation, making links less interesting and focusing on how 'liking' transforms user interactions into comparable and actionable forms of data. The like economy facilitated a more social web experience, where being liked and seeing what others like enables new forms of engagement. The like economy presents an alternative fabric of the web, organized through data flows that emanate from social media platforms such as Facebook. 24 ZAAN BARNARD The like button, embedded both inside and outside Facebook, is an example of a 'tracking device', establishing new markers of relationships online that go beyond the conventional hyperlink between websites. The digital artefact of the Facebook like button sets up a particular relationship between the social and economic dimensions of society. Reflecting on the Meaning of 'Like' The 'like' button can be a tracking device for generating economic value or a shorthand for conveying a positive sentiment. The meaning of a 'like' is contextualized and may be taken for granted. The internet of things refers to new applications of the internet where different identification and tracking technologies are used for self-tracking, providing better services, or for automated crowdsourcing. The internet of things vision integrates a wide range of technologies and platforms through the internet via largely wireless connections. The internet of things can potentially have positive impacts in areas such as e-health, assisted living, logistics, and smart home technologies. Implementing a vision of 'anytime, anywhere, anymedia, anything' communications poses substantial challenges related to privacy, security, trust, power, and exploitation. The Role of Digital Devices in Society The internet of things relies strongly on digital devices being present in and moving about society in both the 'online' and 'offline' sense. These devices can be stationary objects, implantables and ingestibles, wearables, smart clothes and shoes, smart glasses and contact lenses, ear buds, and portables like tablets and smartphones. The smartphone revolution has drastically changed the role played by digital devices in our everyday lives. Smartphones have become highly personal and can often be seen as extensions of our persons. Mobile devices have altered the parameters of daily life for huge numbers of people globally, making the mobile phone an 'agent of social change'. Mobile Communications: A Revolutionary Field Mobile phones, first introduced in the 1980s and 1990s, enabled communication and texting across different locations. Technological advancements in the mid- to late 2000s led to improved computer technology, improved data storage, and cheaper mobile connectivity. This development led to the invention of smartphones, resulting in significant socio-cultural changes. Mobile connectivity has led to societal transformations such as questions about privacy and norms for mobile phone use, changes in business structure, and changes in relationships between teens and parents. Mobile connectivity has shifted the status and power struggles to new ground, enabling constant communication regardless of location. Mobile communications technology has the ability to break down the distinctions between here and there, live and mediated, and personal and public. The mobile phone, being a child of Bell's telephone, Morse telegraph, Marconi's radio, and the first ENIAC computer, is a complex and transformative communicative artefact. Research on mobile computing's impact on society and social relations began in 2005, 25 ZAAN BARNARD similar to the shift in internet research. However, understanding mobile communications in society requires different methodological and theoretical strategies than internet research. New interdisciplinary theoretical and methodological alliances have been formed, and the field of mobile communications studies is more connected across regional and national boundaries than that of internet research. Mobile Media and Technological Geopolitics Mobile media research has highlighted the sociocultural diversity of uses and among users, a departure from the geopolitics of internet research. The development and adoption of mobile phones were primarily driven by Asia and Europe, disrupting the evolution of digital society. Mobile technology is influenced by a wider range of social and cultural backgrounds, not just a narrow, privileged social group. The internet was initially assumed to be a universal, cross-cultural solution, but later realized its uses and effects might differ globally. Early mobile communication infrastructures positioned wireless technology in specific sociocultural and historical contexts. Mobile phones have had a revolutionary effect in many developing countries in the global south, as they are the first telecommunications tool known. Research on digital society recognizes that the effects of technology are always dependent on the social and cultural setting where it is implemented and used. The online and offline are intermingled in various types of intricate relations, a result of the emergence of mobile media studies. Mobile communications studies have led to a re-vitalisation of perspectives that account for context, locality, and place in internet studies. Any technology introduced in a social setting will both affect and be affected by existing structures and practices. Mobile Communications and Social Changes Mobile communications have led to constant online presence, enabling people to access information, share content, and be accessible to others. The small size of smartphones enhances the sense of being easily accessible to social networks. The advent of mobile calls has changed social situations, introducing new social conventions and rules of etiquette. Some individuals aim for discreet interactions, while others use'stage-phoning', broadcasting information to a captive audience. Mobile use has been seen as inappropriate in certain places, leading to 'quiet carriages' and 'no-mobile' policies. This continuous access has led to an 'internet-first frame of mind', encouraging quick search queries and sharing content through digital platforms. The hyperconnectivity of mobile communication has led to changes in how individuals and groups relate to each other and the world around them. Mobile Communications and Social Interaction Control Naomi Baron (2008) highlights the growing ability to control social interactions through mobile communications. 26 ZAAN BARNARD Early landline telephones offered little opportunity to avoid interaction, but the introduction of answering machines and caller ID improved screening and choosing among potential interactions. Mobile phones have introduced more control mechanisms, such as text messaging, allowing users to appear 'away' or offline, or make messages appear unread even when read. Text messaging allows decision-making on if, how, and when to respond to an incoming call for interaction. Mobile connectivity has transformed the nature of social encounters, allowing people to be in touch before meeting up face-to-face. Mobile media have introduced a new choreography of physical gatherings, changing the way people coordinate events. Mobile phones allow for a return to the more casual negotiation of time, changing social rules and expectations regarding when and how one is supposed to be available to others. Mobile phones have led to the development of new gestures, stances, and bodily movements, which were not possible before mobile media. These actions and positions are part of a new body language, specific to digital society, which is now familiar to observers worldwide. Digital Society and Meetings: Approximeetings and Hyper-Coordination Digital technology has transformed informal meetings into approximeetings, where fixed agreements are made for meeting times and locations. Mobile phones allow for flexible arrangements, forewarning about late or early arrivals, and refinement of meeting details. This flexibility can lead to a new sense of insecurity, as everything is virtual until the parties, places, and moments come together. Mobile media researchers Rich Ling and Birgitte Yttri discuss micro-coordination and hyper-coordination as part of this transformation. Micro-coordination involves using mobile phones for logistical purposes, while hyper- coordination involves maintaining intimate social bonds and sharing experiences. Communication researchers James Katz and Mark Aakhus argue that personal communication technology gives rise to a socio-technical spirit or 'apparatgeist', driven by a logic of perpetual contact. The chapter focuses on the emerging research area of software studies, which extends beyond technological phenomena to the social. The chapter explores how natively digital things like search engines and 'like' buttons can be explored from a social studies perspective. The chapter also explores how software-based things gain social significance. The chapter also examines how the internet of things, including wearables and smartphones, have transformed social interaction. CHAPTER 12: RESEARCHING DIGITAL SOCIETY Key Concepts: Digital social research * the data environment * methodological bricolage * digital ethnography * digital anthropology * thick description * social network analysis * weak ties * small-world networks * computational text analysis * distant reading * digital research ethics 27 ZAAN BARNARD Digital Social Research: Challenges and Strategies Digital Social Research Overview Digital social research is a key area of methodological development due to the rapid transformation of research labor. Ethnographic approach provides a solid foundation for research, potentially generating sociologically relevant knowledge about digital society. Mixed-methods approaches involve crossing boundaries between qualitative and quantitative methods and conventional academic disciplines. Computational methods for exploring, mapping, and mining digital society can expand on the ethnographic foundation. The Data Environment The emergence of 'big data' is just one of many transformations in the data environment, affecting opportunities and challenges when doing digital social research. The notion of a 'data environment' underlines that people today are both generators of, and also generated by, this new environment. Doing digital social research often entails discovering and experimenting with challenges and possibilities of ever-new types and combinations of information. Different Types of Data Orthodox intentional data: Data collected and used with the respondent's explicit agreement. Participative intentional data: Data collected through some interactive process. Consequential data: Information collected as a necessary transaction that is secondary to some other interaction. Self-published data: Data deliberately self-recorded and published that can be used for social science research either with or without explicit permission. Social media data: Data generated through some public, social process that can be used for social science research either with or without permission. Data traces: Data 'left' through digital encounters, such as online search histories and purchasing. Found data: Data available in the public domain, such as observations of public spaces, which can include covert research methods. Synthetic data: Where data has been simulated, imputed or synthesized. Digital Society and Social Research Digital society has revolutionized social research by enabling the collection of participative intentional data, consequential data, self-published data, and found data. Social media data, data traces, and synthetic data are specific to digital society, presenting new challenges for researchers. Researchers are often left dealing with data generated through platforms, rather than having the opportunity to elicit data in conventional ways. The complexity of today's data environment forces researchers to constantly think about the variable characteristics of data they encounter or seek out. The need for constant experimentation and discovery is a key challenge in this type of terrain. For instance, when researching social interaction on a platform like YouTube, an analysis of user comments on videos is the data collection method of choice. The process of collecting and ordering comments can be time-consuming and risky, 28 ZAAN BARNARD leading to the use of trial and error. After collecting and ordering comments, there are issues regarding how knowledge of the comments should be achieved and ethical issues to address. Research on digital society must embrace research methods as a creative act, aiming towards mutual reflection, creativity, and learning that advances the state of the art. Researching Digital Society: Methodological Bricolage Digital society research is a transdisciplinary area, requiring a critical and reflective approach to data collection and analysis. Internet studies lack a unified core of scholars who agree on methodological approaches or standards, making them both desirable and frustrating. Few internet researchers have been trained in effective internet research, forcing researchers to navigate a landscape of old and new methods. The internet and its social tools and platforms are a different research context, requiring a conscious shift of focus and method. The debate between 'qualitative' and 'quantitative' methodological approaches persists, with some favoring case-oriented interpretative perspectives and others favoring variable- oriented approaches. There is a growing consensus that combining 'qualitative' and 'quantitative' methods is a valid strategy, balancing their strengths and weaknesses. The 'qualitative' tradition is seen as the more inductive, interpretative study of a small number of observations, while the 'quantitative' tradition is characterized by the deductive, statistical study of large numbers of cases. The best strategy is methodological pragmatism, focusing on the problem to be researched and the type of knowledge sought. Research strategy can be conceived as a form of bricolage, where the research method emerges as a patchwork of solutions to problems faced during the research. The research method is actively constructed from the tools at hand, avoiding pre-existing guidelines and checklists developed outside the specific demands of the inquiry. Studying the Internet and Digital Society: Challenges and Opportunities The internet and digital society are rapidly emerging, making it a compelling area of inquiry. The field presents new challenges and difficulties, including the role of the self in research, the disembodied nature of digital social settings, and the blurred boundary between data and subject. Researchers and their subjects are increasingly blending into each other due to the growing proportion of online lives. The activities of others contribute to constructing these footprints, making it difficult to distinguish between data and analysis. The quality of the data used in research is crucial, with new types of data and modes of data gathering demanding rigorous methods to avoid errors or biases. The criterion of validity in social science research is about evaluating the degree one is actually studying what one purports to study. The impact of respondent motivations on the meaning of a tweet is given full rein, requiring different pathways to check the 'quality' of these data. Digital Ethnography: A Comprehensive Approach Ethnography and Digital Society 29 ZAAN BARNARD Ethnography is a pre-digital research strategy that involves creating detailed descriptions and interpretations of people's everyday lives and social and cultural practices. It is often done with contextualized research data collected through participant observation and in-depth interviews. Digital ethnography aims to generate knowledge about lives and practices in digital society, both online and in settings where digital media intersect with offline lives. Data Collection and Understanding Ethnographic understanding is developed by exploring several different sources of data in close detail. Common methods for collecting ethnographic data include observation studies and interviews. Ethnographic fieldwork is an umbrella term for all the different strategies a researcher employs to gain an insight as rich and detailed as possible. The Importance of Ethnography in Digital Society Ethnography is highly relevant in digital society, especially as the internet is now a fabric of our lives. Christine Hine argued that internet contexts deserve to be taken seriously as places for ethnographic studies. The internet can be understood not only as a cultural artefact but also as a culture, an important aspect of the world itself. Internet ethnography allows researchers to observe a wide variety of social behaviors, patterns, and phenomena, offering a mirror of people's everyday existence. Internet ethnography allows for the study of discussions that arise for their own sake and search for social data in ways that were not possible before digital society. Hine's Perspective on Ethnographic Studies Hine questions the validity of analyzing online interactions alone in ethnographic studies. He questions the reliability of studies if they don't delve deeper into participants' lives. Hine believes that 'online-only' studies can be justified, but may not always be appropriate. Ethnographic projects in digital society require evidence in various places, both online and offline. Hine suggests a multimodal approach to ethnography in digital society, recognizing that topics and issues often cross the online-offline boundary. Hine's concept of 'the E3 internet' refers to the internet being embedded, embodied, and every day. The internet is best understood when contextualized and approached from an understanding of how it is embedded into people's material realities. Anthropologist Daniel Miller and Sociologist Don Slater's View on the Internet Miller and Slater argue that the internet is not a monolithic "cyberspace" but a variety of new technologies used by diverse people in different real-world locations. They suggest that ethnographies should focus on understanding and assimilation of Internet technologies in specific locations. They argue that understanding the different universes of social and technical possibility around the Internet can provide valuable insights. The Role of Ethnography in Ethnography Ethnography should focus on understanding people's perceptions of the internet rather 30 ZAAN BARNARD than the platform itself. Ethnographers should reflect on the meanings of online knowledge for those concerned, rather than rushing to triangulate online information with face-to-face observation. An embedded approach to ethnography of the internet allows for questions beyond a cyberspatial approach, embracing the multiplicity of the internet and how it means different things in different settings among different people. The Ethnographic Approach in Digital Social Research Ethnography can be a sufficient research method, but the changing data environment necessitates the inclusion of other sources not conventionally associated with the ethnographic method. Kozinets' approach, 'ethnography', suggests that researchers should consider all options in studying sociality online, incorporating computational methods of data collection, analysis, word recognition, coding, and visualization. Social network analysis and computational text analysis can extend our ethnographic understanding and can be seen as new forms of 'ethnographic' methods needed by researchers to fully immerse themselves in digitally social phenomena. Social Network Analysis (SNA) Overview SNA is a pre-digital method used to examine the structure of relations in social systems and the patterns of connections among participants. It is increasingly used in studies of 'big data' or other'social data'. SNA provides theoretical perspectives and methodological tools to understand individuals and groups in relational social systems. The concept of a social network in SNA refers to networks and relations at the most basic level, including families, groups of friends, school classes, organizations, clubs, and professional networks. SNA assumes that social patterns identified extend beyond online activities, with some networks taking shape both online and offline. SNA views people as social beings and assumes that our interaction patterns affect our beliefs, words, and actions. It argues that the behavior of individuals and groups is deeply affected by the social networks they are embedded in. Social networks enable and constrain what people do, help us make sense of the world, and influence our choices. Researchers can use different metrics and visualization techniques to understand how a certain network functions. SNA can be applied to various settings and settings in digital society, from the entire internet to text message exchanges among a small group of friends. Social Network Analysis (SNA) and the Concept of Dyad Definition of Dyad Dyad is a pair of social actors, a network of two, and the status of the network tie connecting them. Dyads are connections between two people or groups, and information about how they are connected is crucial for SNA. Concept of Dyads Dyads are constructed based on various factors such as text exchange, Facebook 31 ZAAN BARNARD 'Friends', YouTube channel subscriptions, Instagram posts, and TikTok comments. In Twitter, a dyad can be formed by a single user directing a tweet to a specific user. In a forum, all participants who have posted in the thread are considered part of dyads with all others. Strategies for Dyadic Relationships Strategies can include having a dyadic relationship with only the participant who started the thread, having dyadic relationships with participants who had posted the entry upon which their own entry followed in the thread, or explicitly mentioning another participant in their post. Information on Dyads For SNA, information on pairs of actors is essential. Dyads are the fundamental unit of networks. Creating an 'Edge' List An 'edge' list, like User A mentions User B, can be created from the Twitter example. The list can also include other types of relationships, such as follows and retweets. Attention is paid to the direction of connections (directed networks) or undirected networks (undirected networks). Social Network Analysis (SNA) Overview Graphs in SNA Networks are represented as mathematical objects called graphs. Graphs hold information about nodes and edges. SNA software creates graphs based on inputs, including nodes, edges, and weights. Visualization of Networks Researchers create network maps to explore and interpret network data. These maps are not the same as the actual social networks analyzed. Visualisation is a result of a process, not an automatic or'standard' process. Types of Patterns Found Through SNA Identifies clusters: People in digital society tend to have many connections in densely-knit groups. Centrality: The 'degree' of nodes measures how much of the activity in the network emanates from any particular node. Path length: Paths are network roads along which information can travel from one node to another. Betweenness: Measures how many of the shortest paths a node is on. Small-World Network Structures The concept of'six degrees of separation' suggests that everyone in the world is connected to everyone else by roughly six steps in a chain of 'friend-of-a-friend' statements. The typical chain length in social media is five to seven steps, depending on the geographical distance between the source and the target. Social Network Analysis (SNA) and Computational Text Analysis SNA Analysis 32 ZAAN BARNARD SNA is based on the idea that social networks are structures that are influenced and affected by people. It helps identify patterns in networks by tracking the flow of resources like information, ideas, money, social support, power, and love. SNA can explore how flows in networks affect people and vice versa. Interest in Individuals and Groups SNA can provide insights into the position, role, resources, connections, and structural opportunities of individuals within a network. It can also provide insights into the entire network, its character, and whether it is a centralized or decentralized network. Comparison with Ethnographic Analysis SNA can complement ethnographic analyses by examining the character of the social setting. Rapid developments in computerized text analysis methods have led to increased interest from social scientists, who are considering how to best utilize the vast amounts of text content generated on social media and other forms of computer-mediated communication. Computational Text Analysis in Digital Society Research Computational text analysis is a method developed by computer scientists and linguists to identify and extract useful information from large documents. Computational methods are useful when patterns in the corpus are difficult to find manually. Franco Moretti, a literary scholar, argues that distant reading is an analytical point as it allows focus on units smaller or larger than the text. Computational text analysis requires researchers to move away from conventional close reading to grasp larger sets of data and lose some degree of qualitative detail. Computational text analysis involves making texts into numbers to calculate things about the text. Typical applications include parsing a text, finding relevant themes or topics, automatically dividing documents into categories, and using dictionaries of positive and negative words to map sentiments in the text. These applications, which increasingly leverage machine learning, are important for building search engines, spam filters, and online recommendation systems. Some text analysis methods to start with include corpus analysis, sentiment analysis, and topic modelling. These methods can be used in digital social research. Digital Research Ethics: A Critical Reflection and Best Practices Digital research ethics is a critical aspect of research due to the lack of an established methodological tradition in the field. The ethical challenges in digital research include self-published data, social media data, data traces, and synthetic data. The ethical principles of research ethics are codified in various academic documents and policies, primarily relating to 'intentional data'. The field of digital social research is in a perpetual 'beta state', necessitating continuous ethical decisions. The Association of Internet Researchers (AoIR) has established an Ethics Working 33 ZAAN BARNARD Committee to address ethical issues inductively, arguing that ethical issues are complex and cannot be handled in a binary way. The committee recommends that ethical decision-making is approached as a process, dealing with issues in a contextualized fashion throughout the research process. Key guiding principles for ethical decision-making include: - The greater the vulnerability of the community/author/participant, the greater the obligation of the researcher to protect the community/author/participant. - Ethical principles are best understood inductively rather than universally, applying practical judgment attentive to the specific context. - When making ethical decisions, researchers must balance the rights of subjects with the social benefits of research and researchers' rights to conduct research. Ethical issues may arise and need to be addressed during all steps of the research process, from planning to publication and dissemination. The committee suggests a continued pluralistic approach to internet research ethics, focusing on how to deal with ethical issues in various stages of the research process and in relation to 'Big Data research approaches'. Digital Social Research Methodology Principles of Care Ensure informants gain from their participation. Ensure informed consent about the study's nature and purpose. Mitigate legal risk by being aware of relevant laws. Anonymity Avoid inappropriate revelation of informants' identities or confidential details. Avoid deception and 'fly on the wall' practices when studying sensitive topics. Empathy Forge a'sympathetic depiction of informants' lives, even when discussing troubling aspects. Work to grasp informants' own visions of their worlds. Chapter Summary Discusses the complex data environment in digital society, focusing on ethnographical approaches for thick descriptions of social settings. Suggests the inclusion of computational analyses for studying social connections or patterns of expression in large datasets. Addresses key ethical concerns in digital social research. CHAPTER 13: EPILOGUE: DIGITAL MEDIA AND SOCIAL CHANGE Digital Media and Social Change: A Conceptual Framework Technology's interaction with social ecology is continuous, affecting society in various ways. Social change refers to transformations of social relations, symbolic meanings, and value structures. Changes can be cyclic or one-directional, depending on the context and circumstances. Digital technology is a significant factor in social change. Anthropologist Arjun Appadurai identifies five cultural flows: ethnoscapes (people), 34 ZAAN BARNARD mediascapes (media), technoscapes (technology), financescapes (capital), and ideologies (ideologies). Digital media's impact on social change is influenced by the flows of technology and media, affecting what we see, speak, and do. The actual outcomes of social change are always contextualised, with the type and degree of change varying depending on the specific situation. Digital media can transform social behaviors and relationships completely or slightly, depending on contextal factors. The effects of digital media on social change are ambiguous and complex. From an empirical and analytical pers

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