Chapter 6 Production of Chemicals from Plants PDF

AGR569 BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR PLANTATION CROPS CHAPTER 6 Production of Chemical from Plants  Metabolism & Metabolite Metabolism refers to the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain its life Metabolites are the intermediates and products of meta...

AGR569 BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR PLANTATION CROPS CHAPTER 6 Production of Chemical from Plants  Metabolism & Metabolite Metabolism refers to the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain its life Metabolites are the intermediates and products of metabolism Metabolites are usually small molecules/ chemical compounds that have various functions including structure, signaling, stimulatory, defense….  METABOLIC ENGINEERING IN PLANTS Plants are the most prolific factories for small molecules More than 100,000 metabolites have been identified at 2004 (this may be only 10% of total( Among the organisms from different kingdoms, plants are the richest in secondary metabolites (5,000 – 25,000 per plant)  Plant Metabolis m  Primary metabolites Primary metabolites are compounds that are commonly produced by all plants and directly involved in normal growth, development, and reproduction The main primary metabolites are carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids Some primary metabolites serve as the precursors for the production of secondary metabolite  Secondary metabolites The secondary metabolites are not directly involved in plant growth, development, and reproduction usually has an important ecological function, for example defense, attracting pollinators, seed dispersal….. Examples of secondary metabolite: lignin, anthocyanin, phytoalexin, alkaloids  Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are the sugars made up of glucose and its isomers Carbohydrates come in many different sizes: Monosaccharides made up of one sugar unit (glucose or fructose) Disaccharides made up of two sugar units (sucrose is a glucose and a fructose) Polysaccharides are polymers made up of more than two sugar units  Sources of Sucrose Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) Maple Syrup Sugar Sugar Cane  Polysaccharides Structural polysaccharides are used to provide support to the plants. Example: Cellulose Storage polysaccharides are used to store energy for later use by the plant. Example: Starch  Structural Polysaccharides The most common structural polysaccharide in plants is cellulose. It makes up 40 to 60% of the cell wall. It is also the most common polymer on earth Cellulose is extremely strong due to its chemical organization. It is made of a long chain of beta-glucose molecules – 100 to 15,000 glucose molecules  Proteins Proteins make up most of the remaining biomass of living plant cells. A protein consists of one or more polypeptides made up of amino acids. Plants make amino acids from the products of photosynthesis through a very complex process involving the acquisition of N, usually in the form of NH4, and involving the use of large amounts of energy, in the form of ATP and NADPH.  Structural Proteins Structural proteins make up 2 to 10% of the cell wall in plants. Expansins help increase the surface area of cell walls. Extensins help protect or repair damaged cell walls. The plant cell membrane is about 50% structural proteins.  Storage Proteins Storage proteins are used mostly in seeds and are used as source of nutrition for the early development of seedlings. Storage proteins used in seeds vary considerably between plant species. Corn produces a storage protein called ZEIN. Wheat produces a storage protein called GLIADIN  Enzymes Enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions. Most proteins in living cells are enzymes Some enzymes are good for human health Pure enzymes that maintain their activity when removed from plants are commercially important to us  Enzymes Papain & Bromelain: Chymopapain : enzymes isolated enzymes isolated from pineapple from papaya Nucleic Acids The most complex biological polymers are the nucleic acids that make up RNA and DNA. The basic content of bases (adenine, thymine, gaunine and cytosine) are similar in all plants  Lipids Lipids are the substances from living organisms that dissolve in nonpolar solvents such as ether, chloroform and acetone but not in water. Some lipids store energy Some are the primary structural components of biological membranes Some act as hormones, antioxidants, pigments…….  Lipids Most lipids are made up of nonpolar hydrocarbon groups (CH3, CH2, and CH) Major classes of lipids – Fatty acids – Triacylglycerols – Wax – phospholipid Example of fatty acids  Oils Oils occur in all parts of a plant, but are most common in seeds. Some seeds have so much oil that it can be commercially harvested. The most commonly used oils are oil palm, cotton, sesame, safflower, sunflower, olive, coconut, peanut, corn, castor bean, and soybean oils. The most common seed oil fatty acids are oleic acid (one double bond), linoleic acid (two double bonds), and linolenic acid (three double bonds). Linoleic and linolenic are essential fatty acids – we can’t make them ourselves.  Waxes Waxes are complex mixtures of fatty acids linked to long-chain alcohols. Waxes comprise the outermost layer of leaves, fruits, and herbaceous stems and are called epicuticular waxes. Waxes embedded in the cuticle of the plant are cuticular waxes. Cutin is another wax in the cuticle and it makes up most of the cuticle. Suberin is a similar wax that is found in cork cells in bark and in plant roots. Both help prevent water loss by the plant. Structures of waxes vary depending on which plant produced them. Waxes are usually harder and more water repellant than other fats. Wax on the leaf cuticle prevents water loss Part 2  Plant Secondary Metabolites Plants produce a variety of less widely distributed compounds such as morphine, caffeine, nicotine, menthol, and rubber Certain secondary metabolites are selectively produced by a specific plant Secondary metabolites in plants play important ecological roles that govern interactions between plants and other organisms. Plant Secondary Metabolites Secondary compounds are grouped into classes based on similar structures, biosynthetic pathways, or the kinds of plants that make them. The largest such classes are the alkaloids, terpenoids, and phenolics. Secondary compounds often occur in combination with one or more sugars. These combination molecules are known as glycosides. Usually the sugar is a glucose, galactose or rhamnose. But some plants have unique sugars. Apiose sugar is unique to parsley and its close relatives.  Functions of Secondary Metabolites Many secondary compounds are brightly colored pigments like anthocyanin that color flowers red and blue. These attract pollinators and promote fruit and seed dispersers Nicotine and other toxic compounds may protect the plant from herbivores and microbes. Lignin is a complex polymers that deposited in plant cell walls and vascular tissues. It provides support to the vascular plants, allow transport of water and nutrients throughout the plant.  Alkaloids naturally occurring chemical compounds (natural products) that contant mostly basic nitrogen atoms Many alkaloids are toxic to other organisms. They often have pharmacological effects and are used as medications and as recreational drugs More than 6500 alkaloids are known and are the largest class of secondary compounds.  Opium is the dried latex obtained from the opium poppy. Opium latex contains approximately 12 % of the analgesic alkaloid morphine, which is processed chemically to produce heroin and other synthetic opioids for medicinal use and for illegal drug trade. Morphine was the first individual alkaloid isolated from poppy in 1804.  Terpenoids Terpenoids (sometimes called isoprenoids) are dimers and polymers of isoprene (C5 H8). Terpenoids contribute to the scent of eucalyptus, the flavors of cinnamon, cloves, and ginger, the yellow color in sunflowers, and the red color in tomatoes. Well-known terpenoids include citral, menthol, camphor…..  Phenolics Phenolic compounds are the chemical compounds consisting of a hydroxyl group (—OH) bind directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon group (unsaturated six carbon ring or benzene ring ) Salicylic acid (basic part of aspirin) is a simple phenol.  Phenolics Myristicin is a more complex phenol that provides the flavor of nutmeg Flavonoids are complex phenolics. They are often sold in health food stores as supplements to vitamin C. The most commonly available flavonoid is rutin from buckwheat Anthocyanins are a type of flavonoid that give flowers red and blue pigments Tannins are astringent to the taste. They give dryness (astringency) to dry wines. They can also be used to tan leather. They often give water a tea-colored look. Tannins are common in pines and oaks  Phenolics Lignin is a major structural component of wood. It is a complex polymer. How Phytochemical Compounds extracted and screened? https ://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CC3t67e2G sU&t= 6s  Primary VS Secondary Metabolite PRIMARY METABOLITES SECONDARY METABOLITES essential for cell growth, and aid in the growth and involved directly in metabolic development of plants (for plant reactions such as respiration to stay healthy) but are not and photosynthesis required for the plant to survive/ components or products of live fundamental metabolic pathways or cycles such as colored, fragrant, or flavorful glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and compounds the Calvin cycle. Most primary metabolites are numerous and wide spread identical among most organisms Do not have end product derived by pathways in which primary metabolites involve, considered as the end products  Primary VS Secondary Metabolite PRIMARY METABOLITES SECONDARY METABOLITES produced during the growth produced during the non- phase of cell growth phase of the cell. essential for cell growth and accumulated by plant cells in accumulated in large quantity very small quantities Not involved in defense involved in defense reactions Example: Example: Nucleic acids, Proteins, alkaloids, phenolics, sterols, carbohydrates, and lipids steroids, essential oils and lignins etc. Enhancing Product Yield in Major Crop Through Biotechnology  BIOTECH STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING PRODUCT YIELD IN MAJOR CROPS A) Breeding strategies - Through many different techniques ranging from simply selecting species with high yield traits for propagation, to more complex molecular techniques. - example: bio/molecular marker, DNA fingerprinting, reverse breeding b) Plant cloning – tissue culture - Commercial production of high yield oil palm clones through plant tissues culture (produce exact copies of plants) - Advantages : regeneration of whole plants from plant cells that have been successfully genetic engineered, reduced chances of transmitting diseases, pests, and pathogens,.  BIOTECH STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING PRODUCT YIELD IN MAJOR CROPS c) Genetic engineering/genetic modification - High yield oil palm species can be produce through genetic engineering - introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species d) Biofertilizer -Application of biofertilizer: increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant - microorganism symbiosis: Mycorriza, produce hyphae permeate soil, enable the roots to explore a larger soil volume and have a greater absorptive area, the fungus also penetrates the intracellular site of the root cortex, e) Biocontrol - production of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) to control bagworm, Metarhizium to control rhinoceros beetle andTrichoderma to control Ganoderma