ICT Applications Chapter 6 PDF

6 ICT applications In this chapter you will learn about: ★ communication ★ modelling applications: – financial, civil engineering – traffic management – flood water management – weather fore...

6 ICT applications In this chapter you will learn about: ★ communication ★ modelling applications: – financial, civil engineering – traffic management – flood water management – weather forecasting ★ computer-controlled systems ★ school management systems ★ online booking systems ★ banking applications ★ computers in medicine – information systems – 3D printing ★ expert systems ★ computers in the retail industry ★ recognition systems – OMR – RFID – QR codes – NFC – OCR – biometric ★ satellite systems ★ GPS, GIS and media communication This chapter will cover a number of different applications associated with the use of ICT. Many of the applications bring together notes from earlier and later chapters in this book. There are many more examples of the use of ICT, and you may wish to investigate other uses within the framework of syllabus requirements. Exercises throughout the chapter, and exam-style questions at the end of the chapter, will allow you to test your understanding of the various ICT applications which have been covered. 6.1 Communication There are several communication systems that make use of ICT technology. For example: » newsletters and posters » websites » multimedia presentations » media streaming » e-publications. 6.1.1 Communication media Newsletters and posters Newsletters and posters can be produced very easily using, most commonly, a word processor. Often, the newsletter or poster will have photos which have 110 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 110 13/02/21 5:20 PM  6.1 Communication been taken specially or have been downloaded from the internet (with the permission of the copyright holder). The following sequence is fairly typical of how such a document would be produced on a computer system. The sequence is not always necessarily in the order shown; it can vary depending on what already exists or what needs to be created): » First a word-processor application would be opened » Photos could be obtained by: – using a digital camera and taking photos – searching for images/photos on the internet, or suitable photos could already be stored on the hard drive or cloud – using hard copy photos, which could be scanned in. » If necessary, camera images would then be uploaded (either by connecting the camera or camera memory card) to the computer via a USB port, or by using Bluetooth connectivity). » Photos from all selected sources would then be saved to a file on the HDD or SSD. » When the user is finally ready to produce the document, the photos would be imported from the file stored on the HDD/SSD. » Once imported, photos would need to be cropped, edited and/or resized. » Text would be typed in using a keyboard. » Alternatively, any previously saved text would need to be imported. » Photos need to be placed in their correct position and the text wrapped. » Finally, the whole document would need to undergo proofreading for errors and then saved, ready for printing. Very often, other features, such as a spell checker, would be used to make sure no mistakes had been made. Care needs to be taken when using a spell checker for the following reasons: » The language used in checking the spelling could be different; for example, British English and American English often have different spellings of words. » Names or proper nouns might be highlighted as an error by the spell checker, but may be acceptable. » Similar sounding words need to be checked; for example, where, were or wear all sound the same but have very different meanings – these will not be Link picked up by the spell checker (but might be picked up by a grammar checker). » The (correct) highlighted word may not exist in the spell checker dictionary. Other word- processing features could be used Exercise 6a when producing the Find out what other word-processing features would need to be used when newsletter or poster; producing a newsletter or poster. For each feature identified, write down how you refer to Chapter 17 would use it to produce a professional-looking document. for more information. A newsletter is a very useful method for getting important information to a target group. If, for example, you are doing a fundraising exercise, a well- presented newsletter to accompany the fundraising would be invaluable. Newsletters can be either printed out or available online as an e-publication (see later in this chapter); the method used depends on who the target audience is. With a printed document handed personally to somebody, you can be certain they have seen the newsletter – but in both cases it is nearly impossible to be certain that they have read it! 111 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 111 13/02/21 5:20 PM  6 ICT applications A few of the common guidelines to produce an attractive newsletter include: » Do not try and squeeze too much information onto one page. » Use very clear, easy-to-read fonts (for example, Arial or Trebuchet MS) and use a suitable font size (11-, 12- or 14-point font size). » Decide on whether to use columns (a useful feature if there are diagrams and photos). » Avoid using capital letters as this appears to be ‘shouting’! » Use bold text in headings rather than underlining text. » Use real photos rather than clip art to make the newsletter more interesting. Posters are a good way of publicising, for example, a sporting event or an advertisement for a forthcoming movie. A sporting event poster would need to include at least the following information: » what the event is and where it will take place » date, time and place of event » admission fees (if any) » contact details » other information (such as whether there will be a crèche or facilities for people with disabilities). The movie poster would need to include: » an image taken from the movie to give some idea of the type of movie (that is, comedy, horror, science fiction, and so on) » the date of release » a list of the main characters. THE HODDER WELLY JACKSON ROSE TIGER DUDE Exercise 6b THROWING CONTEST Using a word processor, produce two posters for the following: a an upcoming charity event where there will be stalls selling food and gifts Come and see us at the b a music band Wellington Cricket Ground advertising the on August 22nd 2022 from release of their TRUE CRIME 1 pm untill 4 pm. new song. No entry fee. Refer to chapters in Créche, reception tent, free parking the second half of August 22nd 2022 this book wherever necessary. ▲ Figure 6.1 Examples of posters 112 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 112 13/02/21 5:20 PM  6.1 Communication As with newsletters, posters can be printed out using high-quality printers or can be posted online. Printed posters can be any size. Large posters have the advantage that they are eye-catching and usually very difficult to miss. They are used in many countries on the sides of roads so motorists see them on their way to work. By placing the posters in strategic positions, it is possible to target certain people rather than the general public (for example, advertising expensive cars by placing the posters on buildings or advertising hoardings in financial districts in big cities). The drawback is the cost of display (the advertising areas can only be rented) and that they are subject to weather conditions, so only have a limited life. Websites Rather than producing newsletters and posters by printing them out, it is possible to use websites for advertising. This method of advertising requires a company to either develop their own website or pay another company to advertise on their website. Using the first option may require the company to either employ a team of web designers or go to a specialist company with experience in website design. It may also be necessary to buy hardware and software to develop and store the website. This method can therefore be expensive, but the cost does not stop there. It will be necessary to use programmers to make sure that their website is safe from hackers and from pharming attacks. It has, however, become much easier and cheaper for individuals or small organisations to create and host their own website, using off-the-shelf content management systems to organise content, and pay hosting fees to rent space on a web server. The big advantage to websites is that they offer worldwide advertising capability and there is no need to buy paper and other consumables, or pay people to deliver newsletters or flyers. Before deciding which is the best way to advertise their goods or services, companies have to weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of both methods. Websites tend to be used to advertise goods or services which require national or international coverage. They can cover almost anything from car sales to advertising a musician’s forthcoming album. The main reasons for using websites, rather than newsletters or posters for advertising products and services, are summarised in Table 6.1. ▼ Table 6.1 Advantages and disadvantages of using websites for communication Advantages Disadvantages » sound/video/animation can be added » websites can be hacked into and modified or viruses introduced » links to other pages and websites can be » risk of potential pharming added in hyperlinks and hot spots » it is necessary for the potential customers to have a computer and internet » buttons to navigate/move around the connection website, leading to more information » it is not as portable as a paper-based system (although with modern » ‘hit counters’ allow the owner to see smartphones and phablets this is fast becoming untrue) detailed information about how many » possible for customers to go to undesirable websites (either by accident or people have visited the website as a result of a pharming attack) – this can lead to distrust from customers » can be seen by a global audience » there is a need for the company to maintain the website once it is set up – » cannot be defaced or thrown away this can be expensive » it is much easier to update a website » because it is a global system, it is more difficult to target the correct (and there is no need to do a reprint and audience using website advertising then distribute the new version) » still need to find a way for people to find out about the website 113 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 113 13/02/21 5:20 PM  6 ICT applications Multimedia presentations Presentations that use animation, video and sound or music are generally much more interesting than static presentations done on slides or paper. Presentations are produced using one of the many software packages on the market and then used with a multimedia projector so that the whole audience is able to see the presentation. There are many advantages and disadvantages for this type of presentation, with some examples listed below. Advantages of multimedia presentations » use of sound and animation/video effects which are more likely to grab the attention of the audience, and can make the presentation easier to understand » possible to have interactive hyperlinks built into the presentation; this means the presentation could access a company’s website or even key files stored on the cloud (such as video footage, images, spreadsheets and so on) » use of transition effects allow a presentation to display facts in a key or chronological order » can be interactive » more flexible; because of the links to websites and other external systems (for example, the cloud), the presentation can be tailored to suit a particular audience. Disadvantages of multimedia presentations » a need to have special equipment which can be expensive » danger that equipment could fail while giving multimedia presentations » there may need to be internet access Link » danger when using multimedia in presentations that the focus is on the medium (that is, the multimedia presentation) rather than the message Refer to Chapter 19 or facts for more information » very easy to make a bad presentation with too many animation effects and on producing too much text or images. presentations. Media streaming Media streaming is when users watch movies/videos or listen to music on devices connected to the internet. When using media streaming there is no need to actually download and save the video or audio files. Streaming is a continuous transmission of video or audio files from a remote server where the files are stored. This means data is transmitted and played in real time. In contrast, when downloading it is necessary for the user to store the entire file on the computer’s HDD or SSD before they can watch the video or listen to the music. This uses up valuable storage space and download times for a two-hour video can be up to one hour, depending on the internet speed and the video quality. With streaming, the file is sent as a series of packets of data. Each packet is interpreted by the web browser. Streaming only works well if the internet speed is stable, and at least 25 Mbits/second (for an HD video). 114 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 114 13/02/21 5:20 PM  6.1 Communication data data data data data data web server packet packet packet packet packet packet storing 6 5 4 3 2 1 media files ▲ Figure 6.2 Media streaming data packets Because the playback of the media files is usually much faster than the rate at which data is received over the internet, data packets are buffered in the computer. Buffering makes sure the video plays back smoothly without freezing. While the buffer is receiving data packets, it will be sending the data from the previous data packets to the playback device. In this way, there appears to be no gaps in the received data. Obviously, having a large buffer will considerably reduce the possibility of freezing the play back. Data Data Data packet packet packet Data packets being received 9 8 7 BUFFER Data packets sent to Playback playback device device ▲ Figure 6.3 Buffering of media stream e-publications Most material which is published on paper is also available in an electronic format. For example: » e-books » digital magazines » digital newspapers » digital libraries. In all cases, the publication can be downloaded to a device connected to the internet where it can be read. Moving between pages is usually done by swiping a finger across the screen. E-publications also have the advantage that pages can be expanded in size and it is possible to include media, which would be impossible with the more traditional paper-based publications. Specific devices, such as the Kindle, have been developed to allow a library of e-books to be stored on the device. These devices use a white background with black text to fully replicate reading a normal book. Because no printing costs are incurred, e-publications are usually cheaper than their paper-based counterparts. 115 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 115 13/02/21 5:20 PM  6 ICT applications Exercise 6c Write down as many advantages and disadvantages you can think of for offering customers e-publications rather than paper-based publications. Write a paragraph describing each advantage and disadvantage. 6.1.2 Mobile communication Mobile phones communicate by using towers inside many cells networked together to cover large areas. The towers allow the transmission of data throughout the mobile phone network. Cell showing tower at the centre. Each cell overlaps giving mobile phone coverage ▲ Figure 6.4 Each cell overlaps, giving mobile phone coverage. Each tower transmits within its own cell. If you are driving a car and get to the edge of a cell, the mobile phone signal starts to weaken. This is recognised by the network and the mobile phone then picks up the signal in one of the adjacent cells. If a person is making a call or sending a text to somebody in a different country, then satellite technology is used to enable the communication to take place. Mobile devices either use a SIM (subscriber identity module) card to allow it to connect to the mobile phone cellular network, or they use wireless internet connectivity. Together they allow all of the following features: » SMS (short message service) messaging » phone calls » Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) communication » video calling » internet access. SMS (text) messaging SMS or text messaging allows a very quick way of communicating with another person by typing on a keyboard (the keyboard is often virtual on a mobile phone or tablet). Its advantage is that the other person does not need to be available, and can pick up the message as and when they want. SMS/text messaging between phones using the same cellular network may be free-of-charge. Some of the features of SMS/text messaging include: » quicker and less expensive than making phone calls » can be sent at any time of the day even if the recipient’s phone is switched off » predictive texting, where the system completes a word from the first few letters keyed in; for example, key in ‘preci’ and the phone completes the word as ‘precious’; predictive texting also allows the system to remember frequently used words – together they increase typing speed. 116 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 116 13/02/21 5:20 PM  6.1 Communication Phone calls Link Probably the most obvious use of a mobile phone is its ability to make a phone call on the move. Because mobile phones are so small and they have their own For more information power source, they are an ideal way of keeping in touch anywhere, provided there on the features of is a network signal. Mobile phone networks are still not as stable as landline mobile phones, refer systems and for that reason alone, landline phones are still in common use. back to Chapter 1. Using mobile phones to make phone calls has the following advantages: » There is no need to look for an operational public telephone in an emergency. » It is possible to conduct business or personal phone calls on the move. » It is easier to keep in contact with co-workers at the office no matter where you are. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and video calling One of the most common forms of internet telephony (that is, having a telephone conversation via the internet) is Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a method used to talk to people using the internet. VoIP converts sound, picked up by the mobile device’s internal microphone, into discrete digital data packets that can be sent to their destination via the internet. The internet can be accessed via a mobile phone network or a broadband network and the voice calls are sent over the internet using VoIP technology. One of the big advantages is that phone calls themselves are free, no matter where in the world the caller and receiver are (there may be a cost to send lots of data over the internet via a mobile phone network, however). The main problems are usually sound quality (echo and ‘weird sounds’ are both common faults). Security is also a main concern with VoIP, as it is with other Link internet technologies. The most prominent security issues over VoIP are identity theft, viruses and malware (malicious software), spamming (unwanted emails) For more on security threats see and phishing attacks (the act of sending an email to a user, falsely claiming to Section 8.3. be an established legitimate enterprise, in an attempt to scam the user into surrendering private information that will be used for identity theft). One of the big advantages of using VoIP is that the device’s built-in cameras can also be used so that it becomes a type of video call. While this does not have the sophistication of a true video conference, it is much cheaper (no need for special software and additional hardware items – VoIP uses built-in microphones, speakers and cameras). This relies on good broadband or mobile phone network coverage. Video calling uses software such as FaceTime or Zoom. Both these options require the user to download an app. FaceTime makes use of the built-in smartphone cameras and microphone/speakers. A split screen allows you to see a number of people at the same time; although the small screen size limits the potential of this feature. Zoom is a cloud-based video calling service that allows live video chatting on any device. It is also possible to record sessions to be played back at a later date. Cloud-based video calling prevents the need for users to invest in expensive infrastructure; users can simply dial into a virtual meeting room which makes it much cheaper than conventional video conferencing. 117 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 117 13/02/21 5:20 PM  6 ICT applications Video calls permit: » live video and audio chat » screen-sharing during the call » recording during sessions. Internet access Access to the internet from a mobile device is another valuable feature. Any mobile device can connect to the internet either using a wireless broadband ▲ Figure 6.5 Cloud video connection or via the mobile phone network. Due to the use of smaller screens, calling internet pages displayed on mobile phones are often different to those on desktop or laptop computers. Software detects which type of device is connecting to a website, which then sends out the web page optimised for that Link device. Mobile devices also have a built-in feature which automatically selects wireless broadband connectivity (if possible), instead of the mobile phone See Chapter 4 for more on Wi-Fi network, when connecting to the internet. This has the following advantages: networks. » less expensive (mobile phone company ‘data plans’ often have a cap on how much data can be downloaded, and charge for exceeding this maximum) » lower power consumption (Wi-Fi routers are usually much closer than the mobile phone towers; the longer the range, the greater the power consumption) » quality of service (Wi-Fi usually offers greater bandwidth than the mobile phone network giving the possibility of downloading more data more quickly). 6.2 Modelling applications 6.2.1 Computer modelling A simulation is the creation of a model of a real system in order to study the behaviour of the system. The model is computer-generated and is based on mathematical representations. The whole idea is to try and find out how a system behaves, predict the behaviour of the system in the future and see if it is possible to influence this future behaviour. Advantages of using models » Using computer models is less expensive than having to build the real thing (for example, a bridge!). » On many occasions it is safer to use a computer model (some real situations are hazardous, for example, chemical processes). » Computer modelling allows you to try out various different scenarios in advance. » It is nearly impossible to try out some tasks in advance in real life because of the high risk involved or the remoteness (for example, in space, under the sea, in nuclear reactors, when crash testing cars, etc.). » It is often faster to use a computer model than do the real thing (some applications would take years before a result was known, for example, climate- change calculations, population growth, etc.). 118 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 118 13/02/21 5:20 PM  6.2 Modelling applications Disadvantages of using models » A model is only as good as the programming or the data entered; the simulation will depend heavily on these two factors. » Although building the real thing can be expensive, sometimes computer modelling is also a very costly option, and the two costs need to be compared before deciding which to use. » People’s reactions to the results of a simulation may not be positive; they may not trust the results it produces (there will always be a difference between the results from modelling and reality). Examples where computer modelling is used include: » personal finance » bridge and building design » flood water management » traffic management » weather forecasting. Personal finance Figure 6.6 uses a spreadsheet to model the sales of a tuck shop in a school. A B C D E F G 1 Item Price Selling Profit Weekly Number Total Profit 2 each ($) price ($) per item shop cost sold per item ($) 3 ($) 4 chew 1.00 1.50 0.50 35 17.50 5 chox 2.00 2.50 0.50 45 22.50 6 gum 3.00 3.50 0.50 30 15.00 7 crisps 1.00 1.50 0.50 45 22.50 8 cake 2.00 2.50 0.50 40 20.00 9 10 200.00 profit/Loss: $ -102.50 The formulae behind this spreadsheet are: A B C D E F G 1 Item Price Selling Profit Weekly Number Total Profit 2 each ($) price ($) per item shop cost sold per item ($) 3 ($) 4 chew 1.00 1.50 = (C4-B4) 35 = (C4*F4) 5 chox 2.00 2.50 = (C5-B5) 45 = (C5*F5) 6 gum 3.00 3.50 = (C6-B6) 30 = (C6*F6) 7 crisps 1.00 1.50 = (C7-B7) 45 = (C7*F7) 8 cake 2.00 2.50 = (C8-B8) 40 = (C8*F8) 9 10 200.00 profit/Loss: $ =sum(G4:G8)-E10 ▲ Figure 6.6 Personal finance modelling using a spreadsheet 119 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 119 13/02/21 5:20 PM  6 ICT applications By varying the values in column C or in column F, it would be possible to model the shop’s profit or loss. This example is a very simple model, but it shows the principal of using spreadsheets to carry out any type of modelling that can be represented in a mathematical form. Spreadsheets are often used in some form to carry out financial modelling. Bridge and building design When an engineer or architect designs a new building or bridge, it is necessary to test the design long before any construction work is started. 3D computer modelling is used to try out a number of scenarios to ensure the final design meets critical criteria. Simulation of the final structure is often done as a combination of computer modelling and wind-tunnel tests on scale models of the final designs. For example, when building a bridge, the modeller has to consider a number of scenarios: » the amount of traffic that might be caught in a traffic jam on the bridge in the event of an accident; this could lead to very heavy loading on the bridge structure » the effects of strong winds; can the bridge design withstand the worst-case scenario? » the effect of earthquakes; is the bridge earthquake-proof? » the effect of tidal waves and ice floes during extreme weather conditions; can the pillars supporting the bridge withstand these conditions? » the effects of vibrations – there have been cases over the years where bridges have collapsed due to, for example, wind causing the bridge to sway at its ‘natural frequency’. All of these scenarios can be tested using a computer model. The design can then be modified on the computer if any of the above scenarios caused the bridge to fail. After a number of modifications, a final design will be decided on. To ensure ▲ Figure 6.7 Wind-tunnel the computer model gives good results, a scale model of the bridge would then tests on a new bridge be constructed and subjected to wind-tunnel (and other) trials. design Similar methods are used when designing new buildings, particularly skyscrapers. Again, computer models are used, often in conjunction with wind-tunnel tests on a scale model. When testing the building using a computer model, a number of scenarios need to be considered: » what is the effect of natural phenomena, such as hurricane winds, flooding, earthquakes and any other potentially damaging phenomena (wind movement is a key issue with tall buildings; a 100-storey building may sway one metre to the left and then one metre to the right, cycling every ten seconds, in strong winds – can the building survive such movement, will such movement be unpleasant or frightening to human occupants, and so on) » the effect of a disaster, such as a fire – how does the structure stand up to such scenarios? » how is it possible to move people around the building efficiently (some large structures have over 5000 people working in them and there is a need to model elevator movements to move people efficiently)? All of these scenarios can be tested using a computer model. The design can then be modified on the computer if any of the above scenarios caused 120 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 120 13/02/21 5:20 PM  6.2 Modelling applications the building to fail to meet any of its design criteria. After a number of modifications, a final design will be decided on. To ensure the computer model gives good results, a scale model of the building is then constructed and it is subjected to wind-tunnel trials: ▲ Figure 6.8 Scale models are used to test buildings. Computer modelling provides the following features: » It is possible to zoom into images so that fine details can be seen. » The design can be rotated in a number of different ways to allow different views of the design to be made. » Building a bridge or building is expensive and dangerous if the final design had a serious flaw; modelling should allow any potential design flaws to be detected before any construction starts. » Various scenarios can be tried out to see the effect on the design (see earlier list of scenarios). Flood water management Flood water management uses computer modelling to perform a risk assessment to identify sources of potential flooding, the extent of flooding and how any mitigation or protection measures could work. Computer models are used to predict water levels, water flows and potential flood depths. Input to the system could include: » cross-section of rivers and sea inlets (for example, bottlenecks) » dimensions of any bridges, weirs or sluices in the flood area » factors that can affect water flow rates (for example, tides are affected by the time of year and by strong winds) » boundary conditions (for example, upstream flows into rivers and downstream water levels) » the start and finishing date for the simulation » calibration data (observation of actual flooding in the past). Once a model exists which simulates the area where there is potential flooding, a plan can be put forward to guard against future flooding. Data is continuously added to the model once the flood defences have been put into place. This could result in further flood defences being built, or modifications to the existing system. 121 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 121 13/02/21 5:21 PM  6 ICT applications Figure 6.9 shows the management of the flood protection system in the city of Venice as an example. Flooding of the city over many years has led to the building of a number of flood barriers. It is useful to use computer models to understand how these flood barriers will react to a range of possible flooding scenarios. It is possible to try out several different solutions, using the model, before actually building ▲ Figure 6.9 Flood any flood defences. Following the computer modelling results, Venice decided management barriers to develop a computer-based system rather than build a manual flood defence system. The main advantages of doing this are: » Sensors could be used out in the bay area to monitor sea height and wave height (and possibly other factors, such as wind speeds); using sensors would give a much faster response to any deteriorating conditions in the bay. » Using a computer system is safer, since using humans to monitor conditions could potentially put them at risk. » Data collection is continuous and more accurate than manual measurements (readings can also be taken more frequently). » Because of the faster response to changing conditions, city dwellers can be warned well in advance of any flooding actually taking place. » Data from the sensors could also be fed into the simulation modelling the flood area; this could lead to further improvements as more data is gathered, which means the simulation becomes closer to reality. Traffic management Computer modelling can be used in traffic management. We will consider two different situations. Closure of motorway lanes Repairs need to be made to part of the central barriers on an eight-lane motorway. The company given the task of carrying out these repairs needs to model the impact of the roadworks on the traffic flow. They have decided there are two ways of controlling traffic which need to be modelled. The two models shown in Figure 6.10 will appear on the computer screens, representing the motorway lanes. The company will run model ‘A’ and model ‘B’ using different traffic densities at different times of the day to see which one allows for the best traffic flow. The Model 'A' Model 'B' ▲ Figure 6.10 Motorway closures model 122 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 122 13/02/21 5:21 PM  6.2 Modelling applications model will also try out the effect of different speed limits through the roadworks. They will also simulate the effects of a breakdown to see how this would impact on the traffic flow. By changing conditions in the simulation, it becomes possible to find an optimum design which allows the traffic to flow freely, but also allows the repairs to be done as quickly as possible. This is considerably safer, cheaper and much quicker than trying out different traffic closures on a real motorway. Traffic light simulation Figure 6.11 shows a second use of computer modelling in traffic management – a set of traffic lights are to be modelled at a Y-junction. ▲ Figure 6.11 Traffic light simulation In this simulation it is necessary to consider: 1 how and what data needs to be collected 2 how the simulation is carried out 3 how the system would work in real life. How and what data needs to be collected? Because the success (or failure) of a model depends on how realistic it is, data needs to be collected by watching traffic for a long period of time at the Y-junction. This is best done by using induction loop sensors which count the number of vehicles at each junction. Manual data collection is possible, but is prone to errors and is difficult to do over an 18-hour period per day (for example). The following data is an indication of what would need to be collected: » the number of vehicles passing the junction in all directions » the time of day needs to be recorded along with a vehicle count » how many vehicles build up at the junction at different times of the day » data should cover weekends, bank holidays, etc. as this can alter how the data needs be interpreted » how long it takes a vehicle to clear the junction » other data needs to be considered (for example, pedestrian crossings nearby, as shown in Figure 6.11) » how long it takes the slowest vehicle to pass through the junction » consider other factors (for example, left turns, right turns, filtering, etc.). How is the simulation carried out? Data from the above list is entered into the computer and the computer model is run. Once the designers are satisfied that the model simulates the real situation 123 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 123 13/02/21 5:21 PM  6 ICT applications accurately (that is, by comparing the model’s results with actual traffic flow data) then different scenarios can be tried out. For example: » varying the timing of the lights and observing how the traffic flow was affected » changing the number of vehicles stopped at part of the junction and then changing the timing of the lights to see how the traffic flow is affected » increasing or decreasing traffic flow in all directions » considering how emergency vehicles affect traffic flow at different times of the day. How would the system work in real life? Link » Sensors in the road gather data and count the number of vehicles at the junction. Also refer to Section » This data is sent to a control box or to a computer (it will need to be 6.10, which describes converted first into a form understood by the computer). the use of automated » The gathered data is compared to data stored in the system (the stored data number plate is based on model/simulation predictions which were used to optimise the recognition (ANPR) traffic flow). systems – another » The control box or computer ‘decides’ what action needs to be taken. way to carry out » Signals are then sent out to the traffic lights to change their timing if necessary. traffic management. Weather forecasting Weather stations are set up to automatically gather data from the environment. They are usually automatic and use a variety of sensors to measure: » rainfall » temperature » wind speed » wind direction » barometric pressure (air pressure) » humidity. The data needs to be gathered every hour of every day of the week. This data can then be input into a model which simulates weather patterns. By running the computer model, weather forecasters can predict the weather for the next few days or even longer. The foundation for weather models are complex mathematical equations that represent air movement and how heat and moisture are exchanged in the atmosphere. In a model, the atmosphere is divided up into a three-dimensional grid. The data from the weather stations is input into the appropriate grid and the model is run forward in time to make predictions. » Data is input into the model and a prediction of the weather for the next few days is made. » At the end of the weather forecast period, the model compares its weather forecast with the actual weather that occurred. » The model ‘learns’ from previous weather situations; improvements to how it predicts weather are constantly made. » The new data is then input into the model, and a weather forecast for the next few days is made. » A very powerful computer is needed to run this model, since it has to ‘number crunch’ vast amounts of data. Weather modelling is often shown in animated format where cloud, rain, sun and wind are projected on top of a map of the country and shown in real time (Figure 6.12). 124 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 124 13/02/21 5:21 PM  6.2 Modelling applications Low Low 2.3 inches rain 66mph gusts tream Jet S High ▲ Figure 6.12 Animated weather forecast Exercise 6d Create a spreadsheet to do some personal financial modelling. Include the monthly income in one row and then show all the monthly outgoings. For example: A B C D E F G Month 1 Month 2 Month 3 Month 4 Totals Income ($): Outgoings: food cinema clothes other savings Extend the list as much as you want or change the outgoings to be more realistic if necessary. Insert some values into the spreadsheet and then change a few values to see the effect on your finances. Add extra columns or extra outgoings to extend the spreadsheet. Finally, try creating a graph of your income against outgoings for each month and for a year (do a prediction for the year after four months, for example). 125 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 125 13/02/21 5:21 PM  6 ICT applications Exercise 6e Here is a list of five simulations/models and also a list of five reasons why models are carried out. Try and match the five simulations to the BEST REASON why that simulation would be done. Simulation Reason PILOT TRAINING Cost of building the real thing is too expensive ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING Some situations are too dangerous to humans SIMULATING BRIDGE LOADING Take too long to get results back from real thing NUCLEAR REACTOR MODEL It is almost impossible to do the tasks for real SPACE EXPLORATION Easier/safer to make changes to a model 6.3 Computer controlled systems 6.3.1 Computer controlled systems Robotics in manufacturing Robots are used in many areas of manufacturing, from heavy work right through to delicate operations. Examples include: paint spraying of car bodies, welding bodywork on cars, manufacturing of microchips, manufacturing electrical goods and stock movement in automatic warehouses. Control of robots is either through embedded (built-in) microprocessors or linked to a computer system. Programming of the robot to do a series of tasks is generally done in two ways: 1 The robot is programmed with a sequence of instructions which allow it to carry out the series of tasks (for example, spraying a car body with paint). 2 Alternatively, a human operator manually carries out the series of tasks; this can be done in two ways: i The robot arm is guided by a worker when spraying the object; each movement of the arm is stored as an instruction in the computer. OR ii The worker straps sensors to his own arm and sprays the object; each movement is stored as a set of instructions in a computer; the sensors send back information such as position relative to the object, arm rotation, and so ▲ Figure 6.13 This robot on – this information forms part of the instructions stored in the computer. arm is equipped with a Whichever method is used, once the instructions have been saved, each series spray gun ‘end effector’. Different end effectors of tasks can then be carried out by a robot arm automatically. Each instruction allow the robot arm to will be carried out identically every time (for example, assembling parts in a carry out many different television) giving a consistent product. tasks. Robots are equipped with sensors so they can gather important information about their surroundings and prevent them from doing ‘stupid things’; for example, stopping a robot spraying a car if no car is present, or stop the spraying operation if the supply of paint has run out, etc. 126 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 126 13/02/21 5:21 PM  6.3 Computer controlled systems Robots are very good at repetitive tasks. However, if there are many different tasks to carry out (for example, making specialist glassware for some scientific work), then it is often better to use human operators. Advantages in using robots » They can work in environments harmful to human operators. » They can work non-stop (24/7). » They are less expensive in the long term (although expensive to buy initially, they do not need wages). » They have higher productivity (do not need holidays, etc.). » They provide greater consistency (for example, every car coming off a production line is identical). » They can do boring, repetitive tasks, leaving humans free to do other more skilled work (for example, quality control or design work). » They can carry out different tasks by fitting them with different end-effectors (attachments); for example, a spray gun, a welding gun, and so on. Disadvantages in using robots » Robots find it difficult to do ‘unusual’ tasks (for example, one-off glassware for a chemical company). » They can cause higher unemployment (replacing skilled labour). » Because robots do many of the tasks once done by humans, there is a real risk of certain skills (such as welding) being lost. » Because robots are independent of the skills base, factories can be moved anywhere in the world (again causing unemployment). » The initial set-up and maintenance of robots can be expensive. Production line control Production line control using robots is used extensively in industry. For example: » filling bottles with a liquid, capping the bottle and applying a label » filling metal cans with baked beans, sealing the cans and applying labels. The production line will be continuous, with various robots at each station given a specific task. Using robots in this way leads to: » faster operations (the number of cans of baked beans filled is 120 per minute) » much greater productivity (the production can run 24 hours a day for every day) » greater consistency (every can contains exactly the correct weight of baked beans) » built-in quality control (automatic testing for foreign material, such as metal filings, which would result in automatic rejection from the production line) » reduced cost to the consumer (although initial robot arms are expensive, there are far fewer staff in the factory who would need wages). Let us take a closer view of how robots could be used in a bottling plant. » Sensor 1 (a pressure sensor, light sensor or camera) detects the presence of a bottle; this sensor is constantly sending signals back to the computer. » When the signal from sensor 1 indicates a bottle is present, the computer sends a signal to an actuator which opens a valve allowing liquid to flow into the bottle. » Sensor 2 (a level sensor) is used to detect the correct liquid height in the bottle; this sensor sends continuous signals back to the computer. 127 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 127 13/02/21 5:21 PM  6 ICT applications actuator operating valve valve computer sensor 2 sensor 1 step-wise moving conveyer belt actuator operating motor ▲ Figure 6.14 Bottling plant » When the signal from sensor 2 indicates the bottle is full, the computer sends a signal to an actuator to close the valve. » The computer then sends another signal to a second actuator which operates a motor to move the conveyer belt to allow the next empty bottle to take its correct position. » The whole process is continuous until stopped for maintenance, errors occurring or a change in the process. Exercise 6f Find out about five industrial processes that use production line control. In each case, find out the functions of robots at each stage in the process. In each case, find the advantages and disadvantages of using robots on the production line 6.4 School management systems 6.4.1 School management systems Schools have to manage a number of different tasks in their day-to-day running. These tasks include: » registration and attendance records of students » student performance » computer-aided learning. Registration and attendance records of students The traditional way to record the registration and attendance of a student was to complete daily registers. This was very time consuming because it required a ten- minute session at the beginning and end of each day. It was also prone to error if a student’s name was missed at some point during the registration process. There are a number of possible ways of automating the registration process using hardware and software, some of which are included below. 128 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 128 13/02/21 5:21 PM  6.4 School management systems Method 1 Issue each student with an ID card. These contain a magnetic stripe (shown in FIRE-Academy black) on the rear of the card. The student would have to sign the card and also write their unique student ID on the back of the card. The magnetic stripe would Paul Smith-012 234 555 contain the name of the school, the name of the student, the student’s data of birth and their unique ID (registration) number. ▲ Figure 6.15 Student Each morning the student would arrive at school and swipe their ID card through registration card a magnetic card reader. The data read would identify the student and the time and date they entered the school’s premises. This data would now be stored on a database. On leaving the school (either at lunchtime or at the end of the day), the ID card would again be swiped. This would now record the leaving time and date on the database. This would give a very comprehensive record of when the student attended the school and the number of hours they attended. It would also be a more secure method in the event of, for example, a fire. Using the paper-based system, a student could register then just go home, but with an ID card system, the student’s attendance would be known at all times. The school would now be able to account for every student on the school premises. At the end of a semester (or school year), the database could be interrogated and it would give an accurate attendance record for the student. This attendance record could then be sent out to parents or checked by teachers on a regular basis. There are further functions that could be used such as: » the use of a PIN to stop another student swiping in with the wrong card » the use of GPS tracking (see Section 6.11) so the exact whereabouts of a student would be known; this would require the addition of a chip in the ID card so that the tracking system could identify them (see Section 6.11 for information on RFID) – however, there are privacy concerns surrounding location tracking. Method 2 A second method could make use of biometrics. Each student would have their fingerprints recorded. Their personal details (as in Method 1) plus fingerprints would be stored on a database. When a student entered the school premises, they would be asked to put their hand on a scanner which would read their fingerprints. Because each student has unique fingerprints, this system would be very secure. As with Method 1, the date and time of entering or leaving the school would be accurately recorded on the database. Advantages of this method compared to use of magnetic ID cards » Fingerprints are unique, so it would be impossible for a student to sign in pretending to be someone else (with magnetic cards, a student could give their card to a friend and ask them to sign in for them) – this gives more accurate data and improved security. » ID cards could easily be lost – fingerprints are ‘part of you’ so cannot be lost. » ID cards could be affected by magnetic fields (for example, by being placed close to a mobile phone) which would stop them working properly. » It is much easier to ‘clone’ (make copies of) ID cards than it would be to copy fingerprints (not impossible but very difficult). 129 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 129 13/02/21 5:21 PM  6 ICT applications Disadvantages of this method compared to use of magnetic ID cards » It would take a long time to collect the fingerprints for every student in the school. » The equipment needed to take and read fingerprints is more expensive than magnetic stripe reading equipment. » If a student cuts a finger, the fingerprint may not be identified by the system (which would prevent entry to the school). » There are invasion-of-privacy issues and a number of students and parents may object to having fingerprints stored on a database. Student performance Teachers could make considerable use of spreadsheets to monitor the performance of their students. Essentially, spreadsheets could record the test results of each student over a term/year. This would allow a teacher to easily see how they were performing against other students in the same subjects. It would also be easy to import data into a report, for example, summarising a student’s performance over the academic year. School management systems are used to record the performance of students. Performance can consist of both academic achievement and behaviour. To produce an end-of-term or end-of-year report, the system would need to have access to the following data: » student’s exam and test results in all subjects studied over the term/year » behavioural data (this would include attendance records and, for example, number of times the student was in detention) » CAT scores (these are standardisation test results to enable each student to be measured against a standard). After processing this data, the system could produce: » the average grades for all students in a class » class and year group reports showing academic and behavioural performance. Computer-aided learning Computer-aided learning (CAL) is the use of computer-based systems to assist in the academic teaching of students. They are designed to enhance, and not replace, traditional classroom teaching. Students would use computers as part of their learning and complete online tests to monitor their performance. If a student encounters a problem, CAL is not always able to help the student, however, and in those cases, students would need to take steps to find additional help. Advantages of using CAL to enhance the learning process » Students can learn when they want to and at their own pace. » It allows virtual reality (VR) learning to be used; with VR, the student is fully immersed into the learning environment. » The student can stop at any point and return later to continue where they left off. » It is possible to re-take tests until the student reaches the required skills level. » CAL can make learning more interactive. » CAL makes use of various multimedia (for example, short video clips, animation, music and interactive learning methods). 130 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 130 13/02/21 5:21 PM  6.5 Booking systems » The real goal of CAL is to stimulate student learning and not actually replace teacher-based learning; CAL, if used properly, should be an integrated part of the student’s learning process. » CAL can make use of multiple-choice questions (MCQs) which can be marked immediately by the computer system, giving instantaneous feedback to the student; other assessment methods can be used, such as fill in the missing words, crossword puzzles, linking correct terms to descriptions and gaming. » It can deliver micro-learning; this is where a topic is broken down into small modules which are easy to learn, and is when CAL is most effective. Disadvantages of using CAL to enhance the learning process » CAL cannot give students the experience of handling laboratory equipment; for example, experiments shown in CAL are virtual in nature. » It is expensive and time consuming to integrate CAL properly into the learning environment. » Students can easily be distracted while online; for example, going on to social media sites, visiting websites or even playing online games. » It can lead to the isolation of a student because they are spending their time on their own in front of a computer screen; this needs to be carefully managed. » CAL cannot answer unusual questions, and the student will need to seek out guidance from a teacher; in other words, CAL is not a self-contained learning system. 6.5 Booking systems 6.5.1 Online booking systems Online booking systems rely on the ability to update files immediately, thus preventing double-booking, which could happen if the system response time was slow. Online booking systems are used in: » the travel industry » for concerts (theatre and music events) » for cinema tickets » when booking sporting events. Before we start looking at specific examples, it is worth considering some of the advantages and disadvantages of using online booking systems. Advantages » They prevent double-booking. » The customer gets immediate feedback on the availability of seats and whether or not their booking has been successful. » The customer can make bookings at any time of the day. » The customer’s email allows the booking company to connect ‘special offers’ to their email and inform them of such offers automatically. » It is usually easier to browse the seating plans (particularly on flights) to choose the best seats available at the price. » It is possible to ‘reserve’ a seat for a period of time – this allows a customer to ‘make up their mind’ before finalising the booking of the seat (this was difficult to do with the older paper-based systems). 131 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 131 13/02/21 5:21 PM  6 ICT applications » Very often there are no printed tickets, which saves postal costs and also allows ‘impulse’ bookings only a few hours in advance. » Online booking allows the use of modern smartphone and tablet Apps technology; the customer is sent a QR code which contains all the booking information necessary (this QR code is stored on the smartphone or tablet and only needs to be scanned at, for example, the theatre or airport on arrival). ▲ Figure 6.16 Example of a booking QR code Disadvantages » The setting up and maintenance of online booking systems is expensive. » All customers using this service need access to a computer or mobile phone and a reliable internet connection. » It is often more difficult to cancel the booking and get your money back using online systems. » If the server is down for maintenance, or if the systems breaks down, it becomes impossible to book seats by any method (temporary paper-based systems cannot be used in case of the risk of double-booking occurring). » If the websites are not well designed, it can be difficult to make exactly the booking you want or can lead you to make mistakes; this is a particular issue with flight bookings where correcting an error can cost the customer an additional fee. » Booking online does not allow you to build a personal relationship with a travel agent who might offer free upgrades or special offers which may not be available to online bookings. The travel industry As an example, we will consider booking a flight online. A form similar to the one shown in Figure 6.17 would appear on the screen. The user only needs to fill in the appropriate fields and the system will automatically search for available flights, make bookings and transfer the funds from their bank account. Unless something goes wrong, there will be no need to talk to a human operator at any stage of the booking process. H&S flight booking ? Schedule Need help Departing 13 JUN 2021 at Any time If you need help using this part of the site, please Returning 20 JUN 2021 at Any time review our information about Flight booking. Are you flexible by +/– 1 day? My flight will be Return One way Multistop > Route Don’t forget insurance From Include low-cost airlines For peace of mind, we provide comprehensive online travel insurance To Direct flights only Traveller(s) Adult(s) Child(ren) Infants i Be informed 1 0 0 How can I get the cheapest deal? Saturday night stay (2-11 years) (1 infant per Buy a return ticket adult) Book early Try different airports ▲ Figure 6.17 Online flight booking example 132 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 132 15/02/21 4:52 PM  6.5 Booking systems Exercise 6g Using the screenshot in Figure 6.17, describe the stages when a person logs on to a flight booking website and makes a booking. Describe how the seats are booked, how double-booking is prevented, how the customer’s tickets are produced and how payment is made. Also investigate the latest ways of creating e-tickets, such as using apps on smartphones, and so on. Why are these new methods better than printing out a confirmation email to act as the e-ticket? Events such as concerts, theatres and cinemas We will now consider the online booking system when trying to book a concert, theatre or cinema performance. Because all three examples involve booking seats inside a building fitted with seats, we will use the same booking system for all three. With the example chosen, we have assumed that the customer has already logged on to the events booking website (and the event is a music concert at a seated venue). 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1 6 5 9 10 8 8 19 7 4 20 8 3 7 11 12 13 14 15 16 9 6 17 1 21 2 5 9 10 8 8 1 22 10 9 E 1 4 7 12 13 14 15 16 20 23 E 3 6 10 11 17 18 21 24 2 5 8 9 19 2 22 25 4 7 12 13 14 15 16 0 23 D 1 3 6 9 10 11 17 1 21 D 2 5 7 8 8 1 22 24 25 4 6 9 2 23 C 1 2 3 3 4 5 UPPER CIRCLE 0 21 22 24 2 5 C B 1 2 A B 1 A 13 14 1512 9 10 11 16 1 7 8 7 1 8 1 6 13 14 1512 5 9 10 11 16 1 9 2 4 7 8 7 18 0 21 6 11 12 13 10 19 3 5 7 8 9 14 15 20 22 2 4 5 6 21 23 3 20 21 22 19 16 E 1 2 4 16 17 18 23 24 17 22 E 3 14 15 25 2 18 23 1 2 2 13 19 20 21 22 16 17 18 6 2 19 D D 1 11 14 15 23 2 72 C 0 1 2 13 4 25 8 C B 1 01 1 1 26 B A 1 DRESS CIRCLE A 29 9 30 8 8 9 27 28 31 The seating display at the 7 29 7 M W W 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 W W M venue is shown on the screen 32 6 33 5 30 6 L 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 W W L 34 31 4 5 32 The user selects their seat(s) by 35 4 3 K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 K 33 36 3 2 34 J 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 J 2 highlighting the actual seats 37 1 35 B B 1 A H 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 H A G W 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 G on the screen display and then F 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16 17 18 19 20 21 W F clicks CONFIRM to go to the E 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 E D 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 D next part of the process C W W 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 C B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 W W B A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 A STALLS Please click here to confirm your STAGE seating choice ▲ Figure 6.18 Event booking screen display » The customer clicks on the performance they wish to see. » A date and time is typed in. » The required number of seats is also entered. » The seating display at the venue is shown on the screen. » The user selects their seat(s) by highlighting the actual seats on the screen display and then clicks CONFIRM to go to the next part of the process. » The database is then searched to check the availability of the selected seats. » If the seats are available, the total price is shown plus the seat numbers; this shows on another screen on the web page. » If the customer is happy with this, they select CONFIRM on the screen. » The seats are now temporarily held and set by the system as NO LONGER AVAILABLE – this stops anyone else from booking them. 133 318540_C06_CAM_IGCSE ICT_110_168.indd 133 13/02/21 5:21 PM  6 ICT applications » The customer then enters their personal details or indicates that they are a returning customer (in which case the website being used will already have their details). » Payment method is then selected and payment made. » The theatre seats are then booked in the customer’s name. » The final details are again shown on the screen. » An email is sent to the customer which may contain a QR code which contains all their booking details (this acts as their e-ticket); the QR code is then scanned at the venue. » The database is finally updated with the booking transaction and the seats are permanently confirmed as no longer available. Booking sporting events Booking a sporting event is very similar to the example above. Again, depending on the event, the online booking system will show a seating plan. NORTH 549 550 551 552 501 502 503 504 548 505 547 505 506 545 250 251 252 201 202 203 204 507 545 248 249 205 247 206 508 246 207 544 245 141 142 143 144 101 102 103 104 208 509 140 105 244 139 106 209 543 138 107 510 243 T 210 137 108 542 NW NE 511 242 136 211 109 541 241 212 512 135 110 540 240 134 111 213 513 WEST 239 133 112 214 EAST 539 514 238 132 113 215 538 131 515 237 SW SE 114 216 537 130 115 516 236 217 129 116 536 235 128 117 218 517