MAC 251 Fundamentals of Communication and Information Sciences PDF

**UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN** **FACULTY OF COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION SCIENCES** **DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE** **COURSE CODE: MAC 251** **COURSE TITLE: Fundamentals of Communication and Information Sciences** **Prepared By: Dr. A. L. Azeez; Dr. S.A. Olarongbe; Mr. H.A. Mojeed; Mr. I.A. Sikiru; & Mr. Q.R. Adebowale.** **STUDY GUIDE** **MAC 251 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION SCIENCES** **Introduction** Fundamental of Communication and Information Sciences is a Faculty course that is designed to expose the students of the Faculty of Communication and Information Sciences to the fundamentals of communication and information which are common and which bind the five programmes or departments in the Faculty. It is a harmattan semester course, which all 200 level students of the Faculty must take and pass. An essential, and most significant part of the course, is its extensive dwell on the various career opportunities in the information and communication industry, particularly as they are unique and specific to each of the five programmes in the Faculty. Therefore, the course entails the specific fundamentals that are unique and common to all information and communication processes either through the mass media, computer technology, telecommunication technology or the library. It also emphasizes entrepreneurship endeavours, whereby students are made to present a business plan for establishing and operating any information and communication enterprise that is related to any of the five programmes in the Faculty. It is, though, housed in the Department of Mass Communication, it is co-taught by other lecturers from other Departments in the Faculty. **Course Goal** The primary goal of this course is expose students of the Faculty to the fundamentals of information and communication process in mass media, computer technology, telecommunication technology and library with the purpose of initiating the students to career opportunities in the communication process or industry which they might develop as a future career. **Related courses:** MAC 101: Introduction to Mass Communication & other introductory courses in other Departments. **Prerequisite:** - **Needed for:** - **Learning Outcomes** At the end of this course you should be able to: I. II. **Course Contents** **Module 1 Fundamentals of Communication** Unit 1 Introduction to Communication Unit 2 Communication Technologies Unit 3 Mass Communication and its Career Opportunities **Module 2 Information System Planning and Development** Unit 1 Introduction to Systems Unit 2 Information Systems Unit 3 System Development Life Cycle Models Unit 4 Information System Professionals **Module 3 ICT Application in Libraries and Information Centres** Unit 1 Automation of Library and Information Centres Unit 2 Retrospective Conversion of Bibliographical Information of Library Holdings Unit 3 Entrepreneurship in Library and Information Profession **Module 4 Information and Communication Technology: An embodiment of mass communication** Unit 1 Communication and ICT infrastructure Unit 2 ICT and ICT Policy Unit 3 Current Trends on ICTs for Next Generation Enterprise Information Systems (NG-EISs) **Module 5 Introduction to networking, internet and Network Architecture** Unit 1 Introduction to network and internet Unit 2 Computer Networking Unit 3 Network Architecture Unit 4 Introduction to OSI model/ the OSI and TCP/IP Model Unit 5 Introduction to Network topologies/ Different types of Network topologies **References** Ad-hoc Networks: Fundamental Properties and Network Topologies: Ramin Hekma: Springer, Year: 2006 Aina, L. O. (2004). Library and information science text for Africa. Ibadan: World and Information Services. 322-330. Avgerou C. (2011). Information systems development and management The London School of Economics and Political Science. IS2062, 2790062. Azeez, A. L. (2018): Technological Determinism in Traditional and New Media of Mass Communication, In Bittner, J.R. (1997) Mass Communication: Introduction. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Building Successful Information Systems -- a Key for Successful Organization. Annals of Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati Fascicle I -- (2010). Economics and Applied Informatics. - ISSN 1584-0409 Burstein, F. (2002). Systems development in information systems research. In K. Williamson (Ed.), Research Capena A. (2010), Integrating ICT into Sustainable Local Policies. ISBN 9781615209293 CCNA INTRO: Introduction to Cisco Networking Technologies Study Guide: Exam 640-821: Sybex, 2006, 9780470068502 Communications and Networking: An Introduction (Computer Communications and Networks) Author(s): John Cowley: Springer, Year: 2007 Drucker, P. (1985). Innovation and Entrepreneurship. London: William Heinemann. El Kadiri, S., Grabot, B., Thoben, K., Hribenik, K., Emmanouilidis, C., and von Cieminski, G. and Kiritsis, D. Fiske, J. (1982). Introduction to Communication Studies. New York: Routledge. https://www.ict4cart.eu/technologies/ict-infrastructure-architecture\#: Hasan, S. (2014) Mass Communication: Principles and Concepts. New Dehli: CBS Publishers. Igwe, K. N., Sadiku, S. A. & Edam-Agbor, I. B. (2019). Themes and trends in information science, Lagos: Zeh Communication Limited.145-180. Igwe, K. N. & Uzuegbu, C. P. (2013). Automation of libraries and information centres. Lagos: Waltodany Visual Concepts. 1-21. Introduction to Computer Networking, Author(s): Thomas G. Robertazzi: Springer International Publishing, Year: 2017 Introduction to networking: Author: Saravanan A.M researchgate.net/publications.2018 Introduction to computer networking Varna Free University "Chernorizec Hrabar" Institute of Technology, Author: Prof. T. Bakardjieva Introduction to Distributed Computer Systems : Principles and Features: Ludwik Czaja : Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems: Springer International 2018 Kundishora, S. M (2012), The Role of Information and Communication Technology ICT) in Enhancing Local Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Massey, V., & Satao, K. (2012). Comparing various SDLC models and the new proposed model on Powers G.K. (2003). Information processes and technologies. Heinemann, A division of Reed International Books Ltd, Australia. Ralph M. Stair (2010). Principles of Information Systems A Managerial Approach Ninth Edition , Florida State University, Course Technology, Cengage Learning. Texas Project Delivery Framework, U.S. Department of Information Resources (2008). System \%20Extensions/SDLC/SDLC\_guide.pdf Vira Viktorivna Shendryk and Andrii Boiko. (2015). Stages of Information System Development in the Process Approach. Science Direct. doi: 10.1016/j.procs.2015.12.365 **Requirements** - - - - - - **Assignments and Grading** Beyond the regular classroom attendance weight will be given to assignments and final examination as follows: Tutor Marked Assessment 20% Continuous Assessment 20% Final Examination 60% Total 100% **MODULE 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION** **UNIT 1: Introduction to Communication** 1. Introduction. 2. Learning Outcomes 3. Main Content 1. 2. 3. 4. 4. Summary 5. Self-Assessment 6. Tutor-Marked Assignment 7. References 8. Further Reading 1. **Introduction** This unit introduces you to the fundamentals of communication in general. Therefore, in this unit, you will learn about the importance, meaning or definitions of communication, elements of communication and process through which human beings communicate. Furthermore, you will be exposed to the classical models that describe the general process of communication. 2. **Learning Outcomes** At the end of this unit, you should be able to: i. ii. iii. iv. v. 3. **Main Content** **3.1 Meaning or Definition of Communication** Communication is the process of sharing meaning, ideas, information and expression of thoughts. In other word, communication is expression of thought through symbols that are shared by group of people. It is the essential element and mechanism for sustaining relationship and interaction among human being. Therefore, it is a mechanism that keeps the society going because it sustains the interaction that keeps human system. Without communication, human system cannot be sustained because there will be no interaction and the network of relationship that keeps human system will not have been established. To this end, Emery, Ault & Agnes (1963) defined communication among human beings as the "art of transmitting information, ideas and attitudes from one person to another". In order to expand this definition, Berelson & Steiner (164) defined communication as "the transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills etc. by the use of symbols- words, pictures, figures, graphs etc. It is the act or process of transmission that is usually called communication". The main purpose of communication is to influence target audience's cognitive, affective and behavioural status. To this end, communication is also defined as the "process by which an individual (communicator) transmits stimuli (verbal or written) to modify the behaviour of other individual (the audience)" (Hovland, Janis and Kelly, 1953). In the same vein, Oliver, Zelko & Holtman (1962) defined communication as "fundamentally, the stimulation in the minds of others of essentially your awareness, understanding, and sense of importance of the event, feeling, fact, opinion, or situation you are attempting to depict". **3.2 Process of Communication** Communication is a process and a process means a series of activities geared or moved towards a purpose. Therefore, communication involves a series of activities that are carried out by a number of actors. The activities in communication process include: 1. 2. Encoding: is the activity in communication process that entails transforming or transformation of meanings, thoughts, feelings into codes or signals that are shared by the target audience. By codes, it means a system of symbol that carries meanings that are shared by members of culture or sub-culture or a community. Encoding can also be considered as a transforming or changing meaning into signals that can be carried by a particular medium or channel. Process of communication or mass communication begins from encoding. It is one of the major activities in communication. Decoding[:] it is the activity in communication process that entails the deconstruction of the symbols and codes that are received in order to make meaning out of the message that are passed. There is effective deconstruction or decoding when the codes or signals that are received are shared by the receiver. This means there is effective deconstruction if the meaning intended by the encoder is shared by the decoder. This is otherwise known as effective communication. **3.3 Elements of Communication** Elements of communication refer to actors and paraphilia or instruments involved in the process of communication. They include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. **3.4 Basic Models of Communication** Models are the graphical descriptions of the process of communication. They show the relationship among the elements of communication. Just like theories, models also perform the function of explaining and predicting the relationship among the elements of a structure or a phenomenon. The basic models of communication that describe the general process of communication include: **LASWELL MODEL** **SOURCE MESSAGE CHANNEL RECEIVER** Figure 1.1.1: Laswell Model Laswell was the first scholar to make an attempt of describing\[to describe\] the process of communication. He put his model description in the form of a question that:\[thus:\] "who says what, in which channel, to whom and with what effect''. From the model, certain elements or actors in the communication process are identified. These elements include: **Source:** that answers the question of Who\[the question: "who"\]. The source is then the communicator or the source of the information or the sender or the encoder. In mass communication, the source can be a journalist, editor, columnist, broadcaster, media organization. **Message:** that answers the question of What\[the question:"what"\]. In this regard, it means the information or messages that are being disseminated. Specifically in mass communication, it refers to the content like the news stories, articles, editorials etc. **Channel:** that answers the question of Through which channel\[the question: through which channel"\]. It means the medium through which the message is transmitted or disseminated. Specifically, in mass communication, it refers to Radio, Television, Internet, Cinema, Newspaper etc. **Receiver** is another element that answers the question on To whom\[as above\]. By receiver, it means the decoder, the individual or the group of individuals that receives and deconstructs the message that is transmitted. **Effect** that answers the question on With what effect\[as above\]. By effect, it means the desired response by the source; it means doing what the source wants the receiver to do. This model stimulated many other models of communication and theories of communication that explain the effect of communication or mass media on their audience. However, it has been criticized for many reasons. 1. 2. 3. 4. [Braddov] however added two other dimension to Lasswell model to make it a complete model- He added two dimensions before the question of "with what effect''. To this end, the new model, as improved by Braddov, reads thus -- Who say what '', ''in which channel'', ''to whom'', ''in what circumstances'', ''for what purpose'', ''with what effect''. **SHANNON AND WEAVER** MESSAGE SIGNAL Receiver message MESSAGE Figure 1.1.2: Shannon and Weaver Model It was developed by Shannon and Weaver to explain the technicality involved in communication. Therefore, it is all about the technical importance or dimension of communication. The model essentially identifies two basic functions namely transmitting and receiving. Transmission is done at the end of the sender, while receiving is performed at the destination end. \[punctuate to enhance legibility\] The model describes the process of communication as beginning from the source that transmits a particular message through a signal to the receiver who deconstructs the message at his or her destination. Essentially the model identifies these following major elements: **Source**: The source encodes a particular message out of many alternatives available to him. Encoding in this sense means the transformation of messages into a set of signals; **Transmitter:** It is the technical apparatus that changes the message into signals. Along with this transmitter is the channel which is the technical apparatus or medium that transmits message to receiver; **Receiver:** The receiver decodes or deconstructs the message to get meaning out of the message; and **Noise**: What is more important in this model is the emphasis on what we call **Noise**. The model describes the process of communication as a process of transmitting message that is transmitted/converted into signals that are carried through a particular medium to the receiver. And in the process of transmitting the signals, there are always some technical problems that could hinder the process of decoding the signal accurately. Therefore, noise is anything that is added to the signals being transmitted and received, but which is not originally added by the source. Noise is any signal received by the receiver but which is not intended by the source. It can be in form of semantic not necessarily technical. Semantic noise is nothing but distortion of meaning occurring in the communication process. Shannon and Weaver see noise as a problem of communication. Types of noise include: **Technical Noise**: This occurs in electronic media when there is something like snows on television screen or when there is something like thunder noise on radio; **Semantic Noise**: Complex diction and words that make it difficult to get meaning out of a message. Other types of noise are: Psychological noise, Physiological noise, and Physical noise. Shannon and Weaver model also raises some issues about certain concepts that relate to the noise that can hamper the process of decoding the message accurately. Such concepts include entropy and redundancy. Information, to the Shannon and Weaver model, means the various available choices that are available to the sender while encoding his message. Entropy refers to the concept of unpredictability or randomness of choice available to the sender. In summary, Entropy means unconventional or hard to understand. Therefore, if we encode a message that is unconventional, that does not strictly follow certain predictive rules, then we say the message is entrophic. On the other hand, redundancy means conventional, easy to understand. Redundancy is the concept that is used in communication to make message easily understood by repeating the message several times. This model also makes us to understand that there is a difference between the receivers and destination. The receivers are the point at which decoding is carried out and therefore does not means the destination or the person encoding the message. **4.0 Summary** In this unit, you have learnt that: - - - - - - - **5.0 Self-Assessment** A. B. C. D. E. F. **6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment** A. B. C. **7.0 References** Fiske, J. (1982). *Introduction to Communication Studies*. New York: Routledge. **8.0 Further Reading** Cortner, J. and Hawrthorn, J. (eds) (1980). *Communication Studies*. London: Arnold. Lin, N. (1983). *The Study of Human Communication*. New York: Bobbs Merrill. **UNIT 2: Communication Technologies** 1.0 Introduction. 2.0 Learning Outcomes 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Evolution of Communication Technologies 3.2 Traditional Media of Communication 3.3 New Media of Communication 3.4 Technological Determinism 4.0 Summary 5.0 Self-Assessment 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References 8.0 Further Reading 1. **Introduction** In this unit, you will learn about the evolution of communication technologies and how each of the technologies of communication impacted ways human beings communicate as each of them evolved. To this end, you will be introduced to the advancement of communication technologies from the traditional technologies to the new technologies by looking at the four critical stages of development of communication technologies. We will also look at the features that differentiate traditional communication technologies from the new communication technologies. We will enhance the understanding of the impact of communication technologies as they evolved by looking at the theory of technological determinism. 2. **Learning Outcomes** At the end of this unit, you should be able to: i. ii. iii. iv. v. **3.0 Main Content** **3.1 Evolution of Communication Technologies** The trajectory of the advancement of communication technologies over the last nine centuries had followed the four critical periods of time or stages in human history that McLuhan identified. And according to McLuhan, the transition from one era to another is brought on by a new mode of communication, which caused some sort of significant changes in society. The media technology that evolved at one stage extended human senses further than the one that came before it. This is why McLuhan said that the content of any new, current media is always the format of the medium that came before it. So, the four critical periods or stages of the development of media technology, as identified by McLuhan, are: - - - - These stages translated into the invention of the phonetic alphabet, printing and telegraphy. McLuhan noted that phonetic alphabet catapulted the human race into an age of literacy while printing launched the Industrial Revolution, and telegraphy moved human race to the global village. At the tribal age, communication depended on sound and ear where communication within physical presence was prioritized. At the literate age, phonetic alphabets were invented and this extended and depended on ears and eyes. As McLuhan observed, literacy jarred people out of collective tribal involvement into a \"civilized\" private detachment. At the printing stage, when Gutenberg invented the printing press, the literate age was brought to an end and visual dependence was made more widespread through mass production of identical products. With the electronic age and the invention of telegraph, re-tribalizing of human race occurred. Instant communication became the new cultural and communication behavior,\[behaviour\] and this returned people to a pre-alphabet oral tradition where sound and touch were more important than sight. Electronic age brought people to the global village where they were in touch with one another, everywhere, all-at-once, all-the-time, and instantaneously. **3.2 Traditional Media of Communication** Mass communication era began with the invention of printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1450, forming the prototype for mass production and the first traditional medium of communication. Precursor to this landmark development was the invention of alphabets in, development of paper by the Chinese from papyrus in the year 105 A.D. and movable type in the year 1000. Through the printing press, Gutenberg produced the first so-called modern books, including two hundred copies of a Latin Bible (Campbell, Martins and Fabos, 2005). This was developed further into Linotype and Offset Lithography by 1880. It was the printing press that brought about not only book publishing but newspapers and mag,jmg,azines as powerful media of mass communication with the London's Daily Courant debuting as the first daily newspaper in 1702 and the Review unveiling in London as the first magazine in 1704. By 1833, mass circulation of newspapers (the New York Sun of Benjamin Day), supported by increased literacy and breakthroughs that replaced steam-power presses with mechanical presses, had brought about what we called penny press and yellow journalism.. The social and cultural transformation ushered in by the invention and spread of printing presses, books, newspapers and magazines was highly significant. As Eisenstein (1979) noted, the technology of printing presses permitted information and knowledge to spread outside local jurisdiction. "Individuals had access to ideas far beyond their isolated experience, and this permitted them to challenge the traditional wisdom and customs of their tribes and leaders" (Campbell, Martins and Fabos, 2005, p. 344). So, "the printing presses shaped the course of human affairs than any other product of the human mind because they were the carriers of ideas and it was ideas that changed the world" (Tebbel, 1974). The printing press reconfigured power and people (Lule 2011, p,54). It weakened the fear of disapproval, a sense of isolation, the force of local community sanctions, the habit of respectful submission to traditional authority (Eisenstein, 1979). With the invention of telegraph in 1840s, electronic age was ushered in. Samuel Morse developed the first practical system, sending electrical impulses from a transmitter through a cable to a reception point. By 1844, Morse set up the first telegraph line between Washington D.C., and Battimore, Maryland.. By 1866, the first transatlantic cable ran between Newfoundland and Ireland along the ocean floor. This cable was the forerunner of today's global communication technologies, including the internet, faxes and satellite transmission. And by 1876, first telephone message was sent by Alexandra Graham Bell. In the meantime, Thomas Edison developed the phonography in 1877, and by 1887, phonograph records were introduced. In furtherance of the development of sound technology, long-playing (LP) 33-1/3 rpm record was launched by Columbia Records and became the recording industry standard for over 30 years. Another significant ground-breaking development in the trajectory of the evolution of the media technologies is the invention of cinematograph in 1895 by Auguste and Louis Lumiere, which Thomas Edison had tried to do as far back as the late 1800s. Thus, Auguste and Louis Lumiere's efforts led to the invention of moving pictures. They developed a projection system so that more than one person at a time could see the moving images on a nine-by six --foot projection screen. Earlier, Hannibal Goodwin developed a transparent and pliable film called celluloid that could hold a coating or film of chemicals sensitive to light. Eastman Kodak bought Goodwin's patents in 1890s, improved the ideas, and manufactured the first film used for motion pictures. The consistent development of this medium of communication over a century led to the emergence of various electronic media such as videocassette recorders (VCRs) in 1970s and digital video disk (DVD) precisely in 1997. Each of these developments changed the communication experience of the world as a whole. Cinematograph popularized the culture of movie-going with a viewing audience in a particular public location. While the videocassette recorders enabled people to purchase or rent movies to watch in their homes instead of going to cinema, the digital video disk marked the shift of film experiences to digital formats. Although revolutionary, the telegraph and telephone were limited by their dependence on wires. Thus, there was the need to invent technology for wireless communication and the key development for this came from James Maxwell, a Scottish physicist, who in the mid- 1860s elaborated on ideas about electricity and magnetism with his theorization that there existed electromagnetic waves. Heinrich Hertz, a German physicist, proved Maxwell's theory in 1880s by creating a crude device that permitted an electrical spark to leap across a small gap between two steel balls to mark the first recorded transmission and reception of a radio wave. Meanwhile, it was Guglielmo Marconi, a 20 year old Italian engineer, who made wireless technology practical by transmitting radio messages through a point-to-point communication system in 1895. And with Reginald Fessendein's improvement over Morse code, the first voice broadcasting through one-to-many mass media technology was made in 1906 and the real radio broadcasting technology was consummated. This drastically transformed communication and society. With the consummation of radio technology for broadcasting to a large widely dispersed audience in 1920, it became the veritable means of representing and defining areas of culture that are not readily acknowledged in mainstream newspapers. Negatively, radio had brought about various upheavals of globalization during the 21^st^ century -- the radio broadcast that riveted audiences during World War II, the propaganda services that did battle worldwide during the Cold War, the so-called death radio that helped drive the genocide of Tutsi in Rwanda and many others (Frere, 2009). Although television achieved mass media status in the 1950s, inventors from a number of nations had been toying with the idea of televised images for nearly a hundred years. In the late 1800s, for instance, the invention of the cathode ray tube, which is the forerunner of the TV picture tube, combined principles of the camera and electricity. Other inventors such as Paul Nipkow, a German, who in 1880s, developed scanning disk that could separate pictures into pinpoints of transmittable as a series of electronic lines; Boris Rosing, a Russian physicist, who improved the mechanical scanning devise and Philo Farnsworth, who independently pioneered an electronic TV system, were all credited with the invention of what we know today as television medium of mass communication. Television brought together the visual and aural of film with the accessibility of radio. People sat in their living rooms and kitchens to view pictures and stories from across the globe. The world was brought into the home. The amount, range, and intensity of communication with other lands and cultures occurred in ways simply not possible before. Unlike radio and broadcast television, cable television's earliest technical breakthroughs came from a fairly anonymous and practical group of people. Originating in rural and small-town communities in the late 1940s, cable sprang from obstacles that appliance- store owners faced in selling TV sets to people who lived in remote areas. To remove the obstacles of blockage of signals by hills and mountains, they built antenna relay towers and then strung wire from utility poles for running cables from the towers into individual homes (Campbell, Martins and Fabos, 2005). Although today's technology is more advanced, cable TV continues to operate in pretty the same way. It is the advancement in cable technology that led to the birth of Ted Turner's 24 hour news network (Cable News Network -CNN), which premiered in June 1980, and had grown to revolutionize the news business. **3.3 New Media of Communication** The development of the new media of communication began with the innovation of the internet, resulting from the advancements in computer technology. As a matter of fact, the advent of the internet displayed the typical push and pull of military, scientific, commercial and countercultural innovation (Hafner and Markoff, 1991). Specifically, the invention of the internet began with the funding by the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the investigation of techniques and technologies for networking computer networks of various kinds for the purpose of developing a communication network which would facilitate the exchange of information between various research centers involved in ARPA projects. Therefore, the creation of the so called ARPANET in 1969 became widely recognized as the origin and advent of the internet. By 1968 when ARPA awarded the contract to build the ARPANET to Bolt, Beranek and Newsman, a consulting firm in Cambridge, Massachusetts, specializing in information system, and when it was launched by the end of 1969, we had entered into a technological age in which people could interact with richness of living information. Within sixteen months after its launch, ARPANET was connecting more than ten sites with an estimated 2000 users and at least two routes between any two sites for the transmission of information packets. A public demonstration of ARPANET was held during the first International Conference on Computer Communications in Washington DC in October 1972. And in 1973, the first international connections were set up with Norway and Great Britain at a conference held in Brighton when data was sent by satellite to Goonhilly Downs in Cornwall (Slevin, 2000). Of course, the emergence of the internet was not only the outcome of the efforts of the military and the ARPA, the invention of the modern and the development of the Xmodern protocol in the late 1970s by two Chicago students allowed for the transfer of information between computers over the regular telephone system (Slevin, (2000). According to Slevin's account, with the invention of modern technology, "computer network which had so far been excluded from connecting to ARPANET, or other backbone systems, were then able to communicate with each other" (Slevin, 2000, p. 32). Since its invention, the internet technology is being developed with a variety of applications that have changed human communication behaviours, culture, values and social system from the primitive nature of the oral age to a very sophisticated system of the digital age. The latest and probably most baffling internet application developed is the social media. Social media is a group of Internet-based applications that builds on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allows the creation and exchange of User Generated Content (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). It has various dimensions such as collaborative projects, virtual worlds, blogs, content communities (Flickr, for photos, and YouTube, for video), and social networking (Facebook, Twitter, Istagram, WhatApp, You Tube etc). Technological impact of the new media, which is built around the internet, answers the question on the transformative and interactional impact of the new media. Indeed, the new media are creating new form of action and interaction different from the action and interaction engendered by the traditional/old media of communication. They are even reordering the way in which individuals interpret and respond to the social world. In fact, the new media are fundamentally "contributing to the transformation of the spatial and temporal organization of social life which began with the advent of telecommunication". Furthermore, "the new media, in a way that is fundamentally different from the old media, have enabled individuals and organizations to interact with distant others on an unprecedented scale, creating new modes of exercising power and new modes of underwriting the legitimate use of that power" (Slevin, 2000, p.7). The new media are affecting the mediazation of tradition by endowing it with a new life as well as by exposing it to new sources of critique. They present our new social organization with a range of new options along with new burdens (Thompson, ) By and large, the new media, as Slevin (2000) who drew from Thompson's cultural transmission perspective concluded, are really reorganizing social relations in our modern world. The new media have brought about new forms of publicness and, therefore, intensifying global interactions beyond our local territory, thereby making social interaction operative within what Giddens (1991) called *place as phantasmagoric*. The new media have brought about what Giddens (1991) again called *collage effect*, meaning that new media have technical capacity to present and share information that is timely and consequential. Slevin (2000, p.54-65) reinterpreted collage effect as "a consequence of the intensity with which and the scale at which the internet acts as a disembedding mechanism, prizing information and other symbolic content free from the hold of specific locales and allowing for its recombination across wide time-space distance". Although this effect is enabled by the technical capacity of new media, it can still not be explained or understood outside the social context that facilitates the collages of assembled and reassembled information through the active participation of the users of the media. So, as McLuhan predicted that electronic media would evolve to a point when they would abolish space and time, new media have revolutionalized the way we communicate. He established, with audacious conviction and optimism that, through electronic media, and then new media humans around the world would see one another and speak with one another as if they are in the same space at the same time. With the world made smaller by electronic media and free from restrictions of space and time, McLuhan said "the human family would exist under conditions of a global village". To him, "the new electronic interdependence would recreate the world in the image of a global village" (Lule 2011, p.70). McLuhan was farsighted to have foreseen globalized world being brought about and shaped by the new media, a time in human history when there is an intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole or intensification of worldwide social relations (Giddens, 1990)), although he sounded too eccentric in his divination that the media would allow human to recover the unity they lost at Babel. McLuhan noted that electronic media, and then new media would bring human beings together again, and they would think the same, speak the same language and understand one another with a striking result that there would be unity and peace in the world. Thus, to him, technological development in communication technologies would bring about "a Pentecostal condition of universal understanding and unity" (McLuhan 1964, p.25). Notwithstanding, his prediction of global village is today a reality, but his utopian vision is a mirage. **3.4 Technological Determinism** Technological determinism, as a social theory, presumes that technologies in modern societies drive social changes in the societies as well as the development of social and cultural values of the societies. In specific relation to the media or communication technologies, technological determinism links the dynamism in the way people in modern societies behave and perceive their world with the evolution of the technologies of communication. The concept of the 'medium is the message' by McLuhan explains the assumption of technological determinism. The concept means that as new forms of media technology evolved, peoples' experiences and perceptions of their world transformed in line with the structures and features of each forms of communication technology. Thus, it is the form of media technologies that influenced peoples' perception and the way they lived their lives, and not the content disseminated through the media technologies. To put it in another way, McLuhan believed that each form of communication technologies, as they evolved, was an extension of man -- each of them extended man's senses in different ways or degrees (radio exploiting our hearing senses much more than television that extended our sight). So, the meaning in the idea of technological determinism is that 'as we shape our tools, they in turn shape us'. Invariably, media technologies, as they evolved, shape how we, as individuals in a society, think, feel, act, and how our society operates as we move from one technological age to another. **4.0 Summary** - - - - - - - - - - - - **COMMENTS: Beautifully done but there may be need for originality check** **5.0 Self-Assessment** A. B. C. D. E. F. G. **6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment** A. B. **7.0 Reference** **Azeez, A, L**. **(2018):** Technological Determinism in Traditional and New Media of Mass Communication, In ***Traditional and New Media of Mass Communication***. Eserinune McCarty MOJAYE **(ed.)** Abraka: Published by the University of Ibadan Press. **8.0 Further Reading** Carey, J. (1992) "Technology and ideology: The case of the telegraph" in *Communication as Culture: Essays on Media and Society*. New York: Routledge. Croteau, D. & Hoynes, W. (2000) *Media Society: Industries, Images, and Audiences* (2^nd^ Edition). London: Pine Forge Press. Cambell, R., Martin, C.R., & Fabos, B. (2005) *Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication*. New York: Bedford/ST. Martins. McLuhan, M. (1964) *Understanding Media: The Extension of Man*. New York: McGraw Hill. McLuhan, M. (1962) *The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man*. London: Routledge. McLuhan, M. & Quetin, F. (1967) *The Medium Is the Message: An Inventory of Effect*s. New York: Bantain Books. **UNIT 3 : Mass Communication and its Career Opportunities** 1.0 Introduction. 2.0 Learning Outcomes 3.0 Main Content 3.1 What is Mass Communication? 3.2 Characteristics of Mass Communication 3.3 Functions of Mass Communication 3.4 Sequences of Mass Communication 5. 3.51. Journalism 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 3.6 Preparing and Developing a Career in Mass Communication 3.7 General Requirements for Career Development in Mass Communication 4.0 Summary 5.0 Self-Assessment 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References 8.0 Further Reading 1. **Introduction** This Unit introduces you to mass communication as an important integral part of human communication. It therefore covers the definition of mass communication, characteristics of mass communication, media or technologies of mass communication, functions of mass communication, sequences of mass communication and career opportunity in mass communication. 2. **Learning Outcomes** At this end of this Unit, you should be able to: i. ii. iii. iv. v. **3.1 What is Mass Communication?** It may look very unnecessary to define Mass Communication because we know what it means even as laymen. However, there is the need for a better conceptualization of Mass Communication in order to appreciate its significance in our modern world. Mass Communication is both a steam of study and a career. As a stream of study that emerged in the earlier 19^th^ century, it is the study of the process and techniques by which specialized groups employ technological devices to disseminate symbolic content to large heterogeneous and widely dispersed individuals (Bittner, 1989). The phrase 'specialized group' in this definition indicates that Mass Communication is as well a career. And Mass Communication, as a career, means the profession or craft that specializes in using the mass media to communicate to a large group of individuals that are diverse and dispersed in society. Traditionally, the mass media professional mass communicators use to communicate to their audience include radio, television, newspapers, magazines and films. But, today, the world has witnessed a phenomenal and unprecedented explosion in communication technology and media. All boundaries have been transcended, and the entire global community seems to have been brought together into one unified whole. And it is here that mass-communication, as a stream of study, and as a career, becomes so important and enviable. **3.2** **Characteristics of Mass communication** - - - - - - **3.3 Functions of Mass Communication** - - - - **3.4 Sequences of Mass Communication** - - - - **3.5 Career Opportunities in Mass Communication** To a great extent, Mass Communication is a modern reality which covers all aspects of human life. To this end, there are many areas and opportunities in Mass Communication, which are, of course, expanding by the day. This is more so because the media of mass communication are evolving, and media technologies are increasingly transcending the physical limits and boundaries of human communication. Therefore, Mass Communication, as a stream of study, is usually broken into concentrations or sequences that essentially include **Journalism, Public Relations, Advertising, Cinematography**, and these sequences provide specialized and unlimited career opportunities for people that study Mass Communication if they acquire the necessary skills. These branches of Mass Communication are closely related so that professionals in each field often interact with each other in their work. And this is why it is possible for some professionals to switch careers within mass communications, jumping from one branch to a different one, such as a reporter becoming a public information officer. The Senior Special Assistant to the outgoing President of Nigeria on Media and Publicity, Dr. Reuben Abati, was formerly a columnist and journalist, before switching to the senior Public Relations Officer of the Government. **3.5.1 Journalism** It is a major branch of Mass Communication that specializes in gathering, processing and selection of news and current affairs for the press, radio, television, film, cable, internet etc. In other words, journalism is a discipline and a career involving the collection, analysis, verification, and presentation of news regarding current events, trends, issues and people. So journalism is a career that is concerned \[concerns\] itself with the reporting of events through the media, particularly radio, television, newspapers, magazine and, most recently, the internet. Thus, as a journalist, you have a social role to report things that would have otherwise be private. Journalism careers encompass work at television radio stations and print and online publications. By and large, Journalists include reporters, columnists, editors and photographers at print and online media outlets, such as newspapers, magazines and news websites and blogs, and reporters, anchors, producers and videographers at broadcast media like television and radio. Meanwhile, if you have the appropriate skills, you could pursue a career as a journalist without necessarily working for anybody. You could start your own online reporting, you could be a freelance columnist, you could be an independent reviewer and son on. **3.5.2 Public Relations** This branch of Mass Communication is concerned with establishing and maintaining mutual understanding, goodwill and glow of communication between organizations and their publics? upon whom? organizational success depends.\[recast for legibility\] Public Relations as a career option came into existence as a result of the need of many private and government companies and institutions to market their products, services and ideas. Public image has become so important to all organizations and prominent personalities, and this has resulted\[resulting\] into the popularity of Public Relations as a career. So the role of a\[article a required\] Public Relation Specialist becomes pertinent in crisis situations when the correct and timely dissemination of information can help save the face of the organization. So, in terms of career opportunities, PR offers diverse areas of specialization that include PR for product publicity, PR for Government institutions, publishing newsletters of organizations, Speech Writing etc. And you could do all these as an entrepreneur without working waiting endlessly for a formal employment. **3.5.3 Advertising** Advertising is the art, craft or profession of disseminating paid information and persuasive sale messages through the non-personal media of communication to a large audience of anonymous individuals by an identified sponsor to promote products, services or ideas. Careers in advertising include positions on both the creative side and the business side. Professionals on the creative side focus on the development and production of advertising campaigns for print, online and broadcast distribution. On the business side, career opportunities exist with agencies and media outlets. At agencies, advertising professionals manage accounts, working with both agency clients and the creative professionals developing campaigns, and they also create media buying plans. Advertising professionals at media outlets manage the sale of advertising time or space to organizations and individuals \[Punctuation is poorly done\] **3.5.4 Cinematography** This is another professional branch of mass communication that deals with the production and distribution of films. It is the profession of film making which involves a number of tasks including story writing, casting, shooting, editing, screening or promotion that may result in film release, documentary film making, animation, graphic design, digital printing services etc. **3.5.5 Book Publishing** It is also considered as a professional branch of mass communication and it is concerned with the production of books. So, from the brief identification of the major sequences in Mass Communication, we can see that, as a graduate of Mass Communication, there are many lucrative career options you can pursue and many job opportunities on a self-employment basis. In other words, a professional course in mass communication opens doors for a career and job opportunities in films & TV, publishing, public relations, journalism, editing, direction, filmmaking, scriptwriting, production, etc. In nutshell, Mass Communication widens up the horizon of career and job options for a person. Depending upon personal interest and inclination, a mass communication professional can choose a job and start a business from diverse options. Attractive and high paying jobs as journalist, actor, director, editor, screenwriter, RJ, producer are available to the talented and trained individuals. In fact, your imagination is the only limitation you can have. And this is why I make bold to say that mass communication graduates have no business complaining of unemployment. There is a need and continuous need for mass communicators, and the need will even continue in Heaven when there will be a need for people in the Northern hemisphere of Heaven to communicate to the people in the Southern Hemisphere. A snippet of careers and jobs you can do as Mass Communication graduates under various industries is as follows: **3.5.6 Components of Media/Journalism** Reporter\ Technical writer Newspaper editor Rewrite editor Critic\ News director Sports director Proofreader\ Columnist\ News analyst Copyright specialist Historian\ Assignment editor Radio/TV reporter Videographer\ Editor\ Biographer\ Print coordinator Video journalist\# Anchors Producers Script Writer TV Correspondent Producer Radio Jockey/ RJ Screenwriter Sound Engineer Sound Mixer and Sound Recordist Special Correspondent Video Jockey Film Director **3.5.7 Components of Public Relations** Lobbyist\ Mediator\ Copyright specialist Administrative assistant Press secretary Media specialist/analyst **3.5.8 Components of Publishing** Booking agent Literary agent Editor\ Writer/Contributor **3.5.9 Components of Advertising/Marketing** Media buyer/broker Designer\ Publicity director Information specialist Marketing communications trainee Account management Graphics & production specialist Promotion representative Event manager **Business/Industry**\ Research analyst Media Consultant (for business organisations) Information Analyst Information specialist Customer service representative Content Marketing Specialist **Education**\ Educational writer Teacher/Lecturer\ Media specialist Media librarian Author/Writer It must be emphasized at this juncture that careers and job opportunities in Mass Communication can be high paying and ewarding but also bring in a great deal of job satisfaction and expression of creativity. **3.6 Preparing and Developing a Career in Mass Communication** To prepare yourself for a career and job opportunities in any of the above identified career opportunities, you need a thorough training and acquisition of necessary transferable skills as well as critical education that prepare you to think critically and creatively. So having a degree certificate in mass communication is not the meal ticket you need to make your mass communication a panacea for unemployment. Instead the most essential thing is that you are required to possess certain skills or interests which can help you get or start a job. Those of you who are interested to get into news media should have keen interest and sound knowledge of news and current affairs. Global perspective on various issues helps in obtaining the position of reporter or journalist.\[article a, required before reporter and journalist\] Similarly, those who are interested in electronic media are required to have practical knowledge on video editing. Invariably, you need to put yourself more in learning and practicing the practical elements of the profession To develop a career or start a gainfully job in mass communication, you require commitment, dedication and sacrifice of personal time for the sake of staying on front or top, particularly in news industry. A journalist may have to work day in and day out to get breaking news. Similarly, media professionals who are in entertainment or film making need to work with passion which may come at the cost of their personal life. However, ultimately, mass communication as a career provides job satisfaction, name and fame and a challenge to live with. **3.7 General Requirements for Career Development** I will want to encapsulate the general requirements for career development and job opportunities in Mass Communication in what I call the 6 Cs. These are the requirements you need to rise as far as you wish in your career. They are as follows: Competence: whether we are seeking a career or want to start a gainful job in Journalism, public relations or online media, there is a need for mastery in basic skills of writing. The writing skills include Verbal/written communication ability Persuasive/Negotiation skills Idea Evaluation Accuracy and Attention to details (these days a little mistake can be amplified by the viral effect of mass media) Research skills Analytical skills Courage: There is a need to develop high level of courage to grow and develop in any career in Mass Communication. You need courage to write good stories as a journalists as you need courage to present an advertising proposal at a pitching. Confidence: Confidence is related to courage Creativity: You must have ability to create old or existing things in a way that that will make it new and unprecedented. Commitment: This is highly required if you want to develop in any career in Mass Communication. It is a sense of sacrifice and dedication. Curiosity: To be creative, you must be curious. You must have the motivation to learn and know every bit of everything. Courtesy: You must be honest and high regard for the interest of others. As a journalist, for example, you are to serve the public interest. COMMENTS: Poor punctuation masks ideas being conveyed and language gets pedestrian, some of the time when embellishment is intended. 3. **Summary** - - - - - - - - **5.0 Self- Assessment** A. B. C. D. E. F. G. **6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment** A. B. C. **7.0 References** Bittner, J.R. (1997) *Mass Communication: Introduction*. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Drucker, P. (1985). *Innovation and Entrepreneurship*. London: William Heinemann. Hasan, S. (2014) *Mass Communication: Principles and Concepts*. New Dehli: CBS Publishers. **8.0 Further Reading** Kent, D.W. and Mushi, P.S.D. (1996). *The education and training of artisan for the informal sector in Tanzania*. A report prepared for the Overseas Development Administration. UK Serial No. 18. Musari, A. (2009). Youth and the National Youth Employment Action Plan, Abuja, *Guardian Newspapers*, March 19 Oladele, P.O., Akeke, N.I. and Oladunjoye, O. (2011). Entrepreneurship Development: A Panacea for Unemployment Reduction in Nigeria. *Journal of Emerging Trends in Economics and Management Sciences* 2(4), 251 -- 256. **MODULE 2: INFORMATION SYSTEMS PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT** **UNIT 1: Introduction to Systems** 1. Introduction. 2. Learning Outcomes 3. Main Content 1. 2. 3. 4. 4. Summary 5. Self-Assessment 6. Tutor-Marked Assignment 7. References 8. Further Reading 1. **Introduction** This unit introduces to you the concept system as a term in information systems development. It discusses in details the properties, elements and different types of system. 2. **Learning Outcomes** At the end of this unit, you should be able to: I. II. III. IV. 3. **Main Content** 1. **The Concept of a System** The word System is derived from Greek word Systema, which means an organized relationship between any set of components to achieve some common cause or objective. A system is "an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to a plan to achieve a specific goal." In business, a system is an interrelated set of business procedures used within one business unit working together for a purpose. A system exists within an environment. A boundary separates a system from its environment. Examples of system are: traffic management system, payroll system, automatic library system, human resources information system 2. **Properties of System** A system has the following properties -- **Organization:** Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components that helps to achieve predetermined objectives. **Interaction:** It is defined by the manner in which the components operate with each other. For example, in an organization, purchasing department must interact with production department and payroll with personnel department. **Interdependence:** Interdependence means how the components of a system depend on one another. For proper functioning, the components are coordinated and linked together according to a specified plan. The output of one subsystem is the required by other subsystem as input. **Integration:** Integration is concerned with how system components are connected together. It means that the parts of the system work together within the system even if each part performs a unique function. **Central Objective:** The objective of system must be central. It may be real or stated. It is not uncommon for an organization to state an objective and operate to achieve another. The users must know the main objective of a computer application early in the analysis for a successful design and conversion. 3. **Elements of a System** A system within the context of information technology is composed of six distinct and interrelated components. The components are Input/Output, Processor, Control, Feedback, Environment and Boundaries/Interface. Figure 2.1.1 presents the relationship and organization of these elements of a system. Figure 2.1.1: Elements of a System **i.** **Inputs and Outputs** - - - **ii. Processor(s)** - - - **iii. Control** - - - - **iv. Feedback** - - - **v. Environment** - - - **vi. Boundaries and Interface** - - - 4. **Types of System** Systems can be divided into the following categories of types: **a. Physical or Abstract Systems** - - **b. Open or Closed Systems** - - **c. Adaptive and Non-Adaptive System** - - **d. Permanent or Temporary System** - - **e. Natural and Manufactured System** - - **f. Deterministic or Probabilistic System** - - **g. Social, Human-Machine, Machine System** - - - **h. Man--Made Information Systems** - - 1. 2. 3. **4.0 Summary** In this unit, you have learnt that: - - - - a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. **5.0 Self-Assessment** A. B. C. D. **6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment** A. B. 1. 2. 3. 4. 7. **References** 8. **Further Reading** **UNIT 2: Information Systems** 1.0 Introduction. 2.0 Learning Outcomes 3.0 Main Content 4.0 Summary 5.0 Self-Assessment 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References 8.0 Further Reading **1.0 Introduction** This unit exposes you to the concept of Information System as the core system of any information technology driven organization. It lays more emphasis on its structure, elements and processes. It also explains different techniques for modeling an information system. In addition to that, you will also learn information system development life cycle as a procedure to follow in developing information systems. **2.0 Learning Outcomes** At the end of this unit, you should be able to: I. Define information system II\. State the components of an information system III\. Describe the six information processes carried out by an information system in order to process data IV\. Highlight four information system modeling techniques V. Describe in steps the phases of information system development life cycle **3.0 Main Content** **3.1 Introduction to Information System** An **information system** performs a set of information processes requiring users, data/information and information technology. It performs the information processes of **collecting, organising, analysing, storing/retrieving, processing, transmitting/receiving and displaying information**. Information systems are created for a **purpose** and operate in a particular **environment**. The structure of an information system is presented in Figure 2.2.1. The relationships between the components of an information system are also depicted. The links between the elements are represented using two-headed arrows. This emphasizes that the components influence each other---a change in one can affect the others. For example, the availability of new technology could change the information processes, which in turn might affect the type of skills required by the participants. Discussion on each of the components is presented in the following: ![](media/image31.png) Figure 2.2.1: Structure of an information system ***Purpose*** The system's **purpose** is the reason for its existence and it is used to measure its success. Information systems are created to solve a problem and provide benefits to an organization or individual. There are many different reasons for existence of an information system. Individuals may require an information system whose purpose is: - - Organizations may require an information system whose purpose is: - - - - ***Environment*** The **environment** is everything that influences or is influenced by an information system and its purpose. For example, the environment of the local library is not only the building, but also factors outside the building, such as its location, electrical power, air-conditioning, communications, and funding from the government. The environment of a system is constantly changing. One of the main reasons for the environment to change is the progress in information technology. Twenty years ago, organizations were largely restricted by geographical boundaries. Today, the environment of many organizations is the world. ***Information Technologies (IT)*** IT technologies are the set of tools used by an information system or its participants to perform work---it is the **hardware and software artifacts** used by information systems. It is important to understand that information technology has no effect unless it is used within an information process. To be effective, the information technology must be able to support the information process. **Hardware** is the physical equipment involved in processing information, such as a computer, network cables and data storage devices. Computers often form the basic hardware of an information system. **Computers** are electronic devices that can process data according to stored sequences of instructions. They have five basic functions: input, processing, storage, control and output. - - - - - **Software** is the detailed instructions (computer programs) used to direct the hardware to perform a particular task. A computer needs software to tell it what to do and it needs hardware to carry out the actual work. There are two main types of software: application software and system software. - - ***Data and information*** **Data** is the raw material entered into an information system. This raw material could be in the form of images, audio, video, text or numbers, and is entered using an input device. A key role for an information system is to process data into information **Information** is data that has been ordered and given some meaning by people. It is created or modified by the information processes. The form and content of information must be appropriate for a particular use. It is used within the information system or is the result of the information system. ***Participants*** **Participants** are the personnel who carry out the information processes within the information system. Participants need to know what to do, how to do it and when to do it. All information systems have participants---even the most automated systems rely on people if the system fails. Participants have an essential role in an information system, and the success or failure of the system depends on their skills, interests and commitment. Participants are often referred to as **direct users**. ***Information Processes*** Information processing refers to the creation of information by processing data using information technology. **This changing of data into information involves seven steps called information processes**. These processes describe the procedures that an information system performs to process data into information. The information processes include:\[***how does this differ from processing, above?\]*** I. II. III. IV. V. VI. These steps are not necessarily separate and sequential. Several steps may occur at the same time, and they may occur in almost any order. **3.2 Information System Modeling** Information System Modeling involves the use of virtual representations (called models) to conceptualize and construct system for managing processes in an organization. There exist several system models, including: I. - - II. - - III. - - IV. - a. b. c. d. **3.3 Information System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)** In essence, information system development consists of the process of creating an information system, with all the variables that it entails and which usually need to be taken into account: such variables include amongst\[among\] others; - - - **System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model which includes policies and procedures for developing or altering systems throughout their life time.** An effective System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) should result in a high-quality system that meets customer expectations, reaches completion within time and cost evaluations, and works effectively and efficiently in the current and planned Information Technology infrastructure. **3.3.1 Phases of System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)** Systems Development Life Cycle is a systematic approach which explicitly breaks down the work into phases that are required to implement either new or modified Information System. The specific phases of SDLC depicted in Figure 2.2.2. I. - - - - Figure 2.2.2: *Phases of SDLC* II. - - - - III. - - - - IV. - - - - V. - - - **Note: SDLC was developed for large and structured information system projects. Therefore, development projects using SDLC can sometimes take months or years to complete.** **4.0 Summary** In this unit, you have learnt that: - - - - - - **5.0 Self-Assessment** A. B. C. D. E. **6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment** A. What do you understand by the term "Information Technology"? B. Mention at least two ( one hardware and one software) technologies employed in each of the six information processes carried out by any information system **7.0 References** **8.0 Further Reading** **UNIT 3: System Development Life Cycle Models** 1.0 Introduction. 2.0 Learning Outcomes 3.0 Main Content 3.3 V Life Cycle Model 3.4 Prototyping Model 3.5 Spiral Life Cycle Model 3.6 Rapid Application Development (RAD) 3.7 Agile Life Cycle Model 3.8 Lean Model 3.9 Information System Professionals and Skills 4.0 Summary 5.0 Self-Assessment 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References 8.0 Further Reading **1.0 Introduction** The methodology for information system development involves a great variety of approaches, is known as models of system development life cycle**.\[recast to make meaning\]** This unit exposes you to the various methodological models for developing information systems from feasibility study to maintenance. It is crucial to educate you with an overview of these development life cycle models, for you to further understand which one of them would be more appropriate for a specific information system project. **2.0 Learning Outcomes** At the end of this unit, you should be able to: I. II. III. **3.0 Main Content** **3.1 The Waterfall Model** The waterfall model is a step-by-step sequential description of the product's life cycle that spans 5 key stages. The model is depicted in Figure 2.3.1. - - - - ![](media/image34.png) Figure 2.3.1: waterfall life cycle model The waterfall model suffers an important setback with the increasing speed of technological evolution and the subsequent need to swiftly deliver new software systems and products. - - **Note: T**his model is an idealized and greatly simplified concept of SDLC. It is not very flexible, but it is still popular as a conceptual basis for other frameworks or models. **3.2 Incremental Model** The incremental model is a particular evolution of the waterfall model that attempts to address its more prominent shortcoming, which is the slowness of the cycle. It also aims at outlining a more flexible process that requires less extensive planning up-front. The model is depicted in Figure 2.3.2. According to this approach: - - - Figure 2.3.2: Incremental Life Cycle Model **3.3 The V Life Cycle Model** The V-Model is a variation over the waterfall model that attempted to emphasize the existing connection between each of the stages of the development process and its respective stage of tests. By focusing on this relationship, it ensures that adequate quality measurements and testing are constantly resorted to, throughout the life cycle. This is depicted in figure 2.3.3. ![](media/image32.png) Figure 2.3.3: The V Life Cycle Model The model has the following attributes: - - - - - The core objective of the V life cycle model is to illustrate the importance of the relationship between development and testing tasks. **Note:** Since the V-Model addresses its errors shortly after they are identified, it becomes less expensive to resolve them, which is perhaps the greatest advantage of using this model. However, this model is very rigid and there is little room for flexible adaptation, particularly because any alteration in the requirements will render all existing testing obsolete. **Since the V model requires a great deal of resources, it only works well for small projects where requirements are easily understood.**. **3.4 The Prototyping Model** The prototyping model is based on the idea of creating the entirety or part of a system in a pilot version, called the prototype. The goal is ultimately to build in various versions and consistently refine those versions until a final product is reached. The emphasis is placed on the creation of the software, with less attention to documentation. It is also a user-centric approach, because user feedback is fundamental to develop subsequent prototypes and, eventually, the final product. The model is depicted in figure 2.3.4. Figure 2.3.4: The Prototyping Life Cycle Model A prototyping model essentially entails **four different stages**: 1. 2. 3. 4. There are three types of prototyping, according to specific needs of the project. These are: exploration, experimentation, and evolution. - - - By using a form of the prototyping model, a development project can easily adapt to changing requirements, because there is constant feedback. **Note:** Prototyping models are weak on analysis and design planning. While requirements are assessed as the product is developed in successive versions, there is little control over costs and resources, which can dramatically increase the financial cost of the project. Therefore, we can conclude that prototyping is ideal for larger projects and particularly for user-centric ones. **3.5. The Spiral Life Cycle Model** The spiral model introduces something that other models did not take into account, which is risk analysis. In essence, the spiral model attempts to bring together key aspects of some other prominent models (namely the waterfall, incremental, and evolutionary prototyping). According to this SDLC model: - - - - - - - This SDLC model is depicted in Figure 2.3.5. ![](media/image38.png) Figure 2.3.5: The Spiral Development Model With this SDLC model, product delivery is not only faster, but it is also easier to test and eventually correct. However, the downside to this approach is that it can be more costly to develop and release multiple versions of the product. Moreover, when a later increment is developed due to a new found problem or necessity, it can have compatibility issues with earlier versions of the product. **Note:** The spiral model has significant advantages over previously described models and makes it an ideal model for large, mission-critical projects. On the downside, it is not very efficient in smaller projects. **3.6. Rapid Application Development (RAD)** Rapid application development (RAD) is a systems development methodology that focuses on quickly building a working model of the software, getting feedback from users, and then using that feedback to update the working model. After several iterations of development, a final version is developed and implemented. The RAD methodology consists of four phases as depicted in Figure 2.3.6. Figure 2.3.6: The RAD Methodology - - - - It can be seen that the RAD methodology is much more compressed than other SDLCs. Many of the SDLC steps are combined and the focus is on user participation and iteration. **Note:** One of the most obvious flaws is that it removes a great deal of emphasis on minute planning and modeling at the start of the project, shifting the focus to the system construction. Another prominent issue is that in faster development cycles, extensive quality testing will become less prioritized, reflecting in poorer quality overall. **RAD makes more sense for smaller projects that are less resource intensive and need to be developed quickly.** **3.7. Agile Life Cycle Model** Agile model is a group of methodologies that utilize incremental changes with a focus on quality and attention to detail. Each increment is released in a specified period of time (called a time box), creating a regular release schedule with very specific objectives. The characteristics of agile methods include: - - - - - - The agile model is depicted in figure 2.3.7. ![](media/image45.png) Fig 2.3.7: Agile Development Life Cycle Model The Agile model is outlined in four steps as shown in figure 2.3.7: - - - - **Note:** Important advantage of the agile model is that it is very flexible. It has the capacity to deliver systems whose requirements go through constant changes while, at the same time, demanding strict time limits. Finally, this model is often praised for its high degree of client satisfaction and user-friendliness and reduced error margins. **3.8. Lean Methodology** There is a relatively new concept taken from the business bestseller "The Lean Startup" by Eric Reis. In this methodology, **the focus is on taking an initial idea and developing a minimum viable product (MVP)**. The MVP is a **working software application with just enough functionality to demonstrate the idea behind the project**. Once the MVP is developed, it is given to potential users for review. **Feedback on the MVP is generated in two forms: (1) direct observation and discussion with the users, and (2) usage statistics gathered from the software itself**. Using these two forms of feedback, the team determines whether they should continue in the same direction or rethink the core idea behind the project, change the functions, and create a new MVP. This change in strategy is called a pivot. Several iterations of the MVP are developed, with new functions added each time based on the feedback, until a final product is completed. This is shown in Figure 2.3.8. Figure 2.3.8: The lean model **The biggest difference between the lean methodology and the other methodologies is that the full set of requirements for the system is not known when the project is launched.** As each iterations of the project is released, the statistics and feedback gathered are used to determine the requirements. Note: The lean methodology works best in an entrepreneurial environment where a company is interested in determining if their idea for a software application is worth developing. **3.9 Information systems Professionals and Skills** **3.9.1 Professional Skills in Information Systems** Skills that are required for professionals in information system are categorized into Interpersonal, Analytical, Management and Technical skills. **Interpersonal Skills** - - - - - **Analytical Skills** - - - - - **Management Skills** - - - - **Technical Skills** - - - - - **3.9.2 Information system Professionals** Career opportunities and professionals in information systems are briefly highlighted as follows: **Information officer:** This person is responsible for managing information flow within an organization that uses IT and computer systems (Information Systems) that support the enterprise\'s goals. He is required to possess strong interpersonal communication and analytical skills as described in the previous sub-section. **Chief Technology officer:** The main function of this professional is to set all technology goals and policies within an organization. He interfaces between the IT directors and the management. He also makes sure that the technologies employed by the organization align with the goal and vision of the organization. He must posses interpersonal communication skills and management skills **IT director:** This person is responsible for the function of all of the business\'s technology tools and processes. He designs the use of information technology, their function and processes within the information system. This role is commonly called IT manager or IT leader. IT directors must possess Management, interpersional \[***interpersonal***l\]communication and technical skills **Systems administrator:** This person configures, manages, supports and troubleshoots a multiuser computing environment. Within an information system enterprise, this role can be segmented by technology, requiring an administrator or team dedicated to server, desktop, network, virtualization or other components. System administrators must possess Analytical, technical and interpersonal communication skills. **Application manager:** This person\'s role centers on the provisioning and management of a high value business application. He acquires and configures application software or other tools that ensure the smooth running of the information system enterprise. Must possess analytical and technical skills as well as interpersonal communication skills **Software Developer:** This person (or team) writes, updates and tests code for programs to meet business objectives internally and to ease the use of the system by customers. He must possess technical skills required to develop good software. Analytical and interpersonal skills are as well a must for software developers **Information System Architect:** This person examines and changes IT functions to best support the business. He handles the design and modeling of the whole information system as an entity in an organization. He gathers information from the environment and design a suitable information system to solve organizational and societal problems. Information system architect must possess analytical, management and interpersonal communication skill to work effectively in his role. **4.0 Summary** In this unit, you have learnt that: - - - **5.0 Self-Assessment** I. II. a. b. c. d. III. **6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment** A. Agile Model of development is the most appropriate when developing large scale information system. Discuss B. Distinguish vividly between the Lean methodology and the RAD model of information systems. C. You have just been hired as an application manager in a University, highlight the professional skills you required to possess in order to discharge your role effectively. **7.0 References** **8.0 Further Reading** **MODULE 3: ICT APPLICATION IN LIBRARIES AND INFORMATION CENTRES** **UNIT 1: Automation of Library and Information Centres** 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Learning Outcomes 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Definition of Concepts 3.1.1 ICT 3.1.2 Automation 3.1.3 Library Automation 3.1.4 Automated System 3.1.5 System Librarian 3.2 Stages of ICT Application in Libraries and Information Centres 3.2.1 Rationales for Library Automation 3.2.2 Benefits of Library Automation? 3.2.2.1 Growing Information and Shrinking Library Space 3.2.2.2 Increment in Number of Users and organizing the flood of Information 3.2.2.3 Cost hike of printed and electronic reading materials and resource sharing 3.2.2.4 Budget Enhancement 3.3 Library Automation Project Planning and Implementation 3.3.1 Library Automation Project Planning and Implementation 3.3.2 Steps in Library Automation Processes 3.4.1 Factors to Consider in Planning for Library Automation 3.4.2 Challenges of Automating Libraries and Information Centres \[centers\]\[ in Nigeria 4.0 Summary 5.0 Self-Assessment 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assessment 7.0 Further Reading **1.0 Introduction** Automation of Libraries and Information Centers has now become a global phenomenon. In this unit, you will be introduced to what library automation is all about, several related concepts to library automation, objectives and rationales of library automation and the benefits of library automation. This unit will expose you to steps in library automation processes to accomplish the set aims and objectives. You will also learn in this unit stage-by-stage planning and implementation of library automation project that can lead to a successful implementation as well as the various challenges confronting library automation in Nigeria. **2.0 Learning Outcomes** At the end of this unit, you should be able to: I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. **3.0 Main Content** **3.1 Definition of Concepts** Automation of Libraries and Information Centers is now a global phenomenon. For libraries and librarians to provide effective and efficient information services to their esteemed users in this digital era, it requires that the library operations must be automated. Gone were the days when libraries and information centers depended solely on manual system of providing services to information users. The developments in ICT and its associated systems have altered the ways library services are offered. Thus automation of libraries and information centers is now a necessity in this era of globalization. This is to enable the libraries to be in line with the trends of the digital age and to attract positive perceptions of the users. This course has been designed to equip the students with the working knowledge required of LIS professional to effectively function in library automation project in any type of library. **3.1.1 Information and Communication Technology (ICT)** Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is perceived to be a force to be reckoned with in the 21st Century because it has caused and continues to cause major changes in the way we live. As far as the digital age is concerned, the benefits accrue\[accruing\] from ICT is enormous. Virtually, every profession and sector of the economy has benefitted\[benefited\] immensely from the use of ICT. ICT has altered the way information is accessed and used globally. ICT is usually used synonymously \[what of interchangeably?\] with information technology (IT). It is a term that has attracted a lot of definitions from different authorities and stakeholders. Some of the definitions include: - - - - - - A look at these definitions shows that there is no generally accepted meaning of ICT. However, ICT can be seen as the aggregate or convergence of computers, telecommunications gadgets, multimedia resources and other related technologies that are applied and utilized in the total process of information management and dissemination. **3.1.2 Automation** Automation is the use of machineries and tools for easy working and saving of human power and time.? Automation is generally known as a process of applying computers and other modern technology devices in carrying out certain tasks or activities as against using human beings. Apparently, automation is applicable to every sector of human life. Such sectors include: Education, transportation, banking, manufacturing, agriculture, businesses and governance. Automation is used to reduce the amount of staff time devoted to repetitive (and often less challenging) activities that must be done on a daily basis or from time to time. Computers are capable of introducing a high degree of automation in operations, and functions because they are electronic, programmable and are capable to control over the processes being performed. **3.1.3 Library Automation** When we use machineries for collection, processing, storage, preservation and retrieval of information as well as executing other responsibilities and information centers with the use of ICTs; that is what we call library automation. Library automation is the application and utilization of ICTSs to library operations and services. It is also seen as the general term for the ICTs that are used to replace manual systems in the operations and services of libraries and other information centres.\[***centers***\] It is the use of computer systems and networking technologies for the execution of tasks, operations and routines for the improvement of service delivery in libraries and information centers. Library automation can be elaborately defined as the transformation of library procedures and operations from manual into computer-based system for efficiency in the acquisition, processing, organization, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information to the end-users through the application of information and communication technologies. Furthermore, library automation may is defined as the application of computers to perform traditional library housekeeping activities such as acquisition, circulation, cataloguing\[cataloging\], reference and serials control. It is to be remembered that, various library operations may be automated and not the entire library operations. Library automation refers to the use of computers, associated peripheral media such as magnetic tapes, disks, optical media and utilization of computer based products and services in the performance of all type of library functions and operations. Library automation is a generic term used to denote the various activities related with the location, acquisition, storage, update, manipulation, processing, repackaging or reproducing, dissemination or transmission or communication, and improving the quality of products and services of library and information centers. It enhances the speed, productivity, adequacy and efficiency of the library professional staff and saves the manpower to avoid some routine, repetitive and clerical tasks such as filing, sorting, typing, duplication checking etc. on which we can conserve costly professional manpower for technical service and readers' service. **3.1.4 Automated systems** Automated systems in libraries are all the ICT components, hardware, software, and electronic resources in which a library system depends and use in its daily operations, including the online public access catalogue and circulation system, bibliographic databases, networked and stand-alone PCs, Web Server(s), application programmes etc. It is the responsibility of the Systems Librarian in conjunction with other library Personnel to keep the various components running smoothly, including any connection to outside networks. The development and management of automated systems in libraries involve the activities that are embedded in ***systems life cycle.*** This involves all the activities that are carried out when creating or developing an automated system. **3.1.5 System Librarian** Systems Librarian is a library professional whose primary responsibility is the development and maintenance of the hardware and software systems used in a library, especially the online catalogue and access to bibliographic databases and other electronic resources. In some libraries, the Systems Librarian is called Automation Librarian, ICT Librarian, IT Librarian, Electronic Librarian, or Digital Librarian. **3.2. Stages of ICT Application in Libraries and Information Centres** There are many stages involved in ICT application in libraries and information centres. They are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. It should be noted the implementation of the stages is not water-tight. In some cases, the stages are being executed either individually or simultaneously, without adherence to the order of presentation. This may be due to some factors like the development of recent versions of ICT facilities like automation software and the requirement of periodic evaluation, among others. **3.2.1 Rationales for Library Automation** Rationale is the principles or reasons which explain the decision, course of action, the need and benefits of embarking on library automation projects. However, the computerization or automation of library operations will lead to improved service delivery for the benefit of the library staff and library users. For instance, in the acquisition department of a library, there are a lot of repetitive tasks such as order files, process files, order placement, checking duplicates, claiming and receiving of materials, etc. All these tasks could easily be automated to save both the time and energy of the librarians. Automation also facilitates the generation of a number of reports for better decision making in the overall management of libraries and information centres. Availability of various statistical and other usage and performance reports will ensure better appreciation from library users. For instance, vendor performance analysis is possible. Budgets can be monitored; circulation data can provide information on titles that are in great demand so that more copies can be procured. The need for automation is basically to ensure that delivery of information is timely, accurate, precise and relevant in libraries and information centres. Thus, automation of libraries and information centres is a necessity as a result of various factors. These include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. *Aims and Objectives of Library Automation* \(i) To improve control over collection; \(ii) To have an effective control over the entire operation; \(iii) To improve the existing services; \(iv) To share effectively the resources among various units in a library or amongst libraries; \(v) To avoid duplication of work; \(vi) To use the services of the existing staff effectively. COMMENTS: 1) Thus, automation of libraries and information centres is a necessity as a result of various factors. These include: need to be followed by a noun form, as in (1), (6), (7)-(12) 2\) Please, re-spell ***center,*** everywhere it is used **3.2.2 Benefits of Library Automation** **3.2.2.1 Growing Information and Shrinking Space** The enormous growth or information explosion of literature in each area, subject in number and size and results fragmentation of literature and increasing specialization in every field of knowledge\[recast\]. Due to this information explosion, the quantity, variety and complexity of information are being increased \[increasing\]rapidly in every field. Computer application can solve this problem, as it is capable of storing huge bulk of information on tiny storage mediums i.e. a CD-ROM can store the text of the complete set of Encyclopedia Britannica. Serials, abstracts, indexing periodicals etc. are already available on CD-ROM. **3.2.2.2 Increment in Number of Users and organizing the flood of Information** Increasingly the number of library clientele and information centers and their specialized needs desire a change in the method of organizing information because traditional methods are becoming more and more inadequate. The manual method has serious limitations such as the problem of provision of access to reader\'s information. **3.2.2.3 Cost hike of printed and electronic reading materials and resource sharing** The rapid growth in price of information materials motivated the library and information centers to share their resources. They realized that the only way they could fulfill the needs of their client groups was by effective cooperation between libraries, information centers and networks and by sharing of all type of resources. However, this sharing of resources cannot be done without automation. **3.2.2.4 Budget Enhancement** As overhead costs increase on the staff members of the library, cost of information materials, services and growth of information or information explosion, the budget of the libraries is also affected. That has allowed for automation of the library activities and need to make maximum use of the library funds. **3.3.1 Library Automation Project Planning and Implementation** Planning for an automated library system needs system evaluation and preparation before implementation. The description of library automation project planning and implementation include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. - - - 8. - - - 9. - - - - - - - 10. - - - - 11. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 13. 14. ***Consult with the some organizations/ libraries using the same software to find out about the software and their functions*** (libraries that are already automated their services). The experiences of the other librarians who have used software are more valuable than the assurances of the manufacturers. 15. 16. 17. 18. - - - **3.3.2 Steps in Library Automation Processes** Planning is time-consuming, but it is usually cost-effective because time spent planning reduces the amount of time required for system implementation. Planning for Automation Project in Libraries and Information Centres is all about deciding on what to do, how to do it, when to do it and who is to do it, so as to accomplish the set aims and objectives. It is the process of establishing objective and suitable causes of action before taking action. The goals of planning include to off-set uncertainty and changes, to focus attention on objectives, to gain economic operation, to facilitate control and succeed in the execution of projects. However, it has been observed that lack of proper and adequate planning had led to the failure of automation efforts in libraries. Library automation requires careful planning, through implementation and periodic evaluation. Proper planning for library automation project determines to a large extent the success or otherwise of such projects. The steps involved are: **Step 1**: Describing existing library services and technology 1. 2. 3. **Step 2**: Assessing needs and setting priorities 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. **Step 3:** Translating needs and priorities into specifications 1. 2. **Step 4:** Evaluating proposals and selecting a system 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. **Step 5:** Putting your system into place 1. 2. 3. **Step 6:** Retrospective conversion and barcoding (Note: We are going to have a comprehensive discussion on retrospective conversion of library holdings in our subsequent lectures) **3.4.1 Factors to Consider in Planning for Library Automation** The following factors must be considered while planning for automation in libraries and information centres: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. **3.4.2 Challenges of Automating Libraries and Information Centres in Nigeria** The major challenges of automating libraries and information centres in Nigeria are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. **4.0 Summary** In this unit, you have learnt that: - - - - - - - - - **5.0 Self-Assessment** A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. **6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment** A. List and describe how the major areas and aspects of library services are taking advantage from ICT. B. Library automation requires careful planning, through implementation and periodic evaluation. Discuss **7.0 References** Igwe, K. N. & Uzuegbu, C. P. (2013). Automation of libraries and information centres. Lagos: Waltodany Visual Concepts. 1-21. Aina, L. O. (2004). *Library and information science text for Africa.* Ibadan: World and Information Services. 322-330. **8.0 Further Reading** [[http://www.javatpoint.com/c-programming-language-tutorial]](http://www.javatpoint.com/c-programming-language-tutorial) [[https://ict.senecacollege.ca/\~ipc144/pages/content/modul.html]](https://ict.senecacollege.ca/~ipc144/pages/content/modul.html) **UNIT 2: Retrospective Conversion of Bibliographical Information of Library Holdings** 1.0 Introduction. 2.0 Learning Outcomes 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Retrospective Conversion of Bibliographical Information in Libraries 3.1.1 The Concept of Retrospective Conversion 3.1.2 Objectives of Retrospective Conversion 3.1.3 Planning of Retrospective Conversion 3.1.4 Pre-conversion Issues 3.2 Methods of Retrospective Conversion 3.2.1 In-House Conversion 3.2.2 Outsourced / Contract Conversion 3.3 Steps in Retrospective Conversion of Bibliographical Information 3.3.1 Filling of Data input Sheets/Worksheet 3.3.2 Entering Data into Software 3.3.3 Editing of the Database 3.4 Key to Success in Retrospective Conversion 4.0 Summary 5.0 Self-Assessment 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assessment 7.0 Further Reading **1.0 Introduction** A comprehensive automation in libraries and information centres must be accompanied with retrospective conversion of existing catalogue into machine-readable form. In this unit, you will be exposed to what retrospective conversion of bibliographic information in libraries is all about, processes involved in the planning of retrospective conversion and the pre-conversion issues. This unit will also expose you to different methods of retrospective conversion as well as step-by-step in retrospective conversion. **2.0 Learning Outcomes** At the end of this unit, you should be able to: I. II. III. IV. **3.0 Main Content** **3.1 Retrospective Conversion of Bibliographical Information in Libraries** As libraries and information centres are automating their activities and functions to meet the increasing need of users, retrospective conversion is an integral part of the process that needs not to be neglected. In other words, comprehensive automation in libraries and information centres must be accompanied with retrospective conversion of existing catalogue into machine-readable form. It may take years depending on the size of the existing collection of the library. Smaller libraries have advantage over the larger libraries because of the lesser quantity of data for retrospective conversion. New libraries are expected to either maintain both card and electronic catalogues or emphasize on only electronic catalogue. **3.1.1 The Concept of Retrospective Conversion** The word "Retrospective" indicates that the process is only for already existing records and the meaning of the word "Conversion" refers to the form and format changing. Therefore, "Retrospective Conversion" is the process of changing format of existing records in a particular library into another format. It is changing of already existing catalogue from traditional form to a machine-readable form. Retrospective conversion is defined as the process of converting the database of a library's holdings from non-machine-readable form to machine-readable form and that are not converted during day to day process. It is also defined as a partial or complete conversion of an existing catalogue into machine-readable form as opposed to converting records created currently. From the foregoing, it can be concluded thus that retrospective conversion is the conversion of bibliographical information of library holdings, especially from non-machine-readable form to machine-readable form; and that are not created during day to day

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