Chapter 5.docx

What must L2 learners know? What is linguistic competence from a social perspective? What does it involve? What is a language community? What are the two levels of context that affect language learning? What are the microsocial factors? What are the different contextual dimensions that lead to L2 va...

What must L2 learners know? What is linguistic competence from a social perspective? What does it involve? What is a language community? What are the two levels of context that affect language learning? What are the microsocial factors? What are the different contextual dimensions that lead to L2 variations? What is accommodation theory? Explain the nature of input modifications? Explain the nature of interactional modifications? Social Contexts of SLA When we talk about what is being acquired in SLA, it is not enough just to talk about the language itself. We must also include the social and cultural knowledge embedded in the language being learned, that is required for appropriate language use. What must L2 learners know? Categorizing objects & events and expressing experiences in a different ways. Understanding their own role Understanding others’ roles as members of communities w/ sociopolitical bounds. From a social perspective, the notion of linguistic competence which was introduced in Chapter 1 is inadequate to account for what is being acquired in any language that is going to be used for communicative purposes. Researchers made a critical observation that speakers who can produce any and all of the grammatical sentences of a language means they have developed linguistic competence And this will build a sense of belonging to that language community. Communicative Competence “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community” (Saville-Troike 2003). Language Community.. A group of people who share knowledge of a common language. It involves knowing: 1. vocabulary, phonology, grammar & other aspects of linguistic structure. 2. When to speak (or not), what to say to whom, and how to say it appropriately in any given situations. 3. The social & cultural knowledge which enable speakers to use and interpret linguistic forms. Within the definition of communicative competence, then, the content of “what a speaker needs to know,” as well as judgments of relative success in attaining that knowledge, depend on the social context within which he or she learns and is using the language. Two levels of context affecting language learning Microsocial factors the potential effects of different surrounding circumstances. Macrosocial factors relates SLA to broader cultural, political, and educational environments. Microsocial factors 1. L2 variation 2. Input & interaction 3. Vygotsky’s Socialcultural Theory 1. L2 Variation One defining characteristic of L2 learner language is that it is highly variable. Some of the variability is due to changes that occur in what learners know and can produce as they progressively achieve higher levels of L2 proficiency. However, there is also considerable variation in learners’ L2 production at every stage along the way that we can attribute in large part to their social context. Which variable feature (vocabulary, phonology, morphology, syntax, discourse) depends largely on the communicative contexts in which it has been learned and is used. Some relevant contextual dimensions are: Communicative contexts 1. Linguistic contexs 2. Psycological contexts 3. Microsocial contexts 1. Linguistic contexs elements of language form & function associated w/ the variable element. Ex: coming vs. comin’ the phonological variable [ŋ] in coming is more likely to be used before a word which begins with a back consonant or before a pause, and the variable [n] in comin’ is more likely before a front consonant. The part of speech can also be a relevant linguistic context, with pro- duction of [ŋ] most frequent in one-syllable nouns such as ring or song, and [n] in the progressive form of verbs, as in I’m workin’. 2. Psychological contexts factors associated w/ the amount of attention which is being given to language form during production, the level of automaticity versus control in processing, or the intellectual demands of a particular task. for instance, the copula of That is a nice car may be produced during a formal second language lesson or in a writing exercise but omitted in informal conversation even at the same point of L2 development. Ex: This is a nice car. 3. Microsocial contexts Features of situation & interaction which relate to communicative events within which language is being produced, interpreted, & negotiated. This includes: Level of formality Participants’ relationship to one another If the interaction is public or intimate Linguistic & Psychological Perspectives Interest Variation that occurs in learners’ language as they develop increasing competence over a period of time is of particular interest from linguistic and psychological perspectives, as it reflects a developmental continuum. Variation that occurs in different contexts at a single point in time is of more interest from a social perspective, as it often corresponds to informal–formal features associated with linguistic register. Variation that occurs in learners’ language as they develop increasing competence over a period of time Developmental continuum Social Perspective Interest Variation occurs in different contexts at a single point in time. Correspond to informal-formal features associated w/ linguistic register. A substantial amount of research on the effect of microsocial contexts has been based on the framework of Accommodation Theory. Accommodation Theory Speakers change their pronunciation & even grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they’re talking to. Native speakers tend to simplify their language when they’re talking to an L2 learner who is not fluent. L2 learners may require somewhat different varieties of the target language when they’ve different friends. 2. Input & Interaction Within the linguistic approaches discussed in Chapter 3, for instance, followers of behaviorist learning theories consider input to form the necessary stimuli and feedback which learners respond to and imitate; followers of Krashen’s Monitor Model consider comprehensible input not only necessary but sufficient in itself to account for SLA; Within the psychological approaches discussed in Chapter 4, those working from an IP framework consider input which is attended to (i.e. intake) as essential data for all stages of language processing; Within the social approaches surveyed in this chapter, some researchers also consider input primarily as “data” for essentially innate linguistic and/or cognitive processes, but others claim a more important role for input in determining what features of language are learned, and how. Social approaches also consider the nature and role of interaction in acquisition, and ways in which it is helpful – and perhaps necessary – for the development of advanced levels of L2 proficiency. From a social perspective, interaction is generally seen as essential in providing learners with the quantity and quality of external linguistic input which is required for internal processing, in focusing learner attention on aspects of their L2 which differ from target language norms or goals, and in providing collaborative means for learners to build discourse structures and express meanings which are beyond the current level of their linguistic competence. Nature of input modifications Language addressed by L1 speakers to L2 learners frequently differs in systematic ways from language addressed to native or very fluent speakers. In speech, the modified variety is called foreigner talk; it has the characteristics listed in Table 5.1 Utterances by native speakers to language learners are grammatical, simplified input may omit some obligatory elements. ___you like it? Nature of interactional modifications Along with input, social interaction is also essential for L1 acquisition: no children can learn their initial language by merely listening to tape recordings, radio broadcasts, or television programs. In contrast, many L2 learners do acquire at least some level of competence without interacting face to face with speakers of the target language, and for at least some highly motivated and/or talented learners, that level may be very high. Other types of interaction which can enhance SLA include feedback from NSs which makes NNSs aware that their usage is not acceptable in some way, and which provides a model for “correctness.” to achieve full native competence, corrective feedback is common in L2 and may indeed be necessary for most learners to ultimately reach native-like levels of proficiency when that is the desired goal. Negative feedback to L2 learners may be in the form of direct correction, including explicit statements like That is the wrong word; directives concerning what “cannot” or “must” be said; and explanations related to points of grammar and usage. Or the negative feedback may come as indirect correction, which may include several interactional modification forms Intake to cognitive processing We have already emphasized that language input may “go in one ear and out the other,” and it contributes to acquisition only if it is “let in” to the mind for processing: i.e. if it becomes intake. According to claims made in the Interaction Hypothesis, the modifications and collaborative efforts that take place in social interaction facilitate SLA because they contribute to the accessibility of input for mental processing: “negotiation for meaning, and especially negotiation work that triggers interactional adjustments by the NS or more competent interlocutor, facilitates acquisition because it connects input, internal learner capacities, particularly selective attention, and output in productive ways Some learners are more successful than others includes the degree of access to social experience which allows for negotiation of meaning & corrective feedback. An alternative view of the role of interaction in SLA is based on Sociocultural (S-C) Theory 3. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory A key concept in this approach is that interaction not only facilitates language learning but is a causative force in acquisition; further, all of learning is seen as essentially a social process which is grounded in sociocultural settings. According to S-C Theory, learning occurs when simple innate mental activities are transformed into “higher-order,” more complex mental functions. This transformation typically involves symbolic mediation, which is a link between a person’s current mental state and higher-order functions that is provided primarily by language. This is considered the usual route to learning, whether what is being learned is language itself or some other area of knowledge. The results of learning through mediation include learners’ having heightened awareness of their own mental abilities and more control over their thought processes. So far we are using the term “interaction” to mean interpersonal interaction: i.e. communicative events and situations which occur between people. One important context for symbolic mediation is such interpersonal interaction between learners and experts (“experts” include teachers and more knowledgeable learners). This is an area of potential development, where the learner can achieve that potential only with assistance. According to S-C Theory, mental functions that are beyond an individual’s current level must be performed in collaboration with other people before they are achieved independently. One way in which others help the learner in language development is through scaffolding. This includes the “vertical constructions” mentioned above as a type of modified interaction between NSs and NNSs, in which experts commonly provide learners with chunks of talk that the learners can then use to express concepts which are beyond their independent means. This type of mediation also occurs when teachers collaborate in constructing language by providing help to a student when performing a task. In addition to interpersonal interaction, S-C Theory requires consideration of intrapersonal interaction: i.e. communication that occurs within an individual’s own mind. This is also viewed by Vygotsky as a sociocultural phenomenon. One type of intrapersonal interaction that occurs frequently in beginning stages of L2 learning – and in later stages when the content and structure of L2 input stretches or goes beyond existing language competence – makes use of L1 resources. This takes place through translation to oneself as part of interpretive problem-solving processes. Yet another type (which was of particular interest to Vygotsky) is private speech. This is the self-talk which many children (in particular) engage in that leads to the inner speech that more mature individuals use to control thought and behavior. Private speech by these children provides good evidence that even when they were not interacting with others, they were not merely passively assimilating L2 input; they were using intrapersonal interaction in an active process of engagement with the input they heard, practicing to build up their competence. Audible private speech may continue among adult learners in specialized, social settings where imitation or other controlled response to linguistic input is considered “normal” behavior. A low level of muttering is frequently heard in language laboratories where learners wearing headphones practice alone in cubicles, A common intrapersonal activity that is closely related to private speech is “private writing,” in which individuals record language forms and other meaningful symbols on paper in order to help store items in memory, organize thought, solve problems, or such, without intent to communicate with others. (Journaling)