228 Questions
What are the three stages involved in the Information Processing approach to language learning?
Input, intake, and output
What determines the priorities of language learners' processing of input?
Attention
What is an example of U-shaped development in language learning?
Learners initially producing 'feet' correctly, then producing 'foots', and eventually returning to 'feet'
What is the role of intake in the language learning process?
Intake is the input that learners have paid attention to and is available for processing
What is the output of language learning in the Information Processing approach?
The language produced by learners in speech, sign, or writing
What is the characteristic of L2 development according to the Information Processing approach?
Partially discontinuous, with regular systemic reorganization and reformulation
What is the type of bilingualism that is believed to characterize simultaneous bilingualism in early childhood?
compound bilingualism
In which hemisphere of the brain are both languages, L1 and L2, predominantly stored?
left hemisphere
At what age does research suggest that L2 acquisition involves more right-hemisphere involvement?
between ages nine and twelve
What factor may influence the organization of L2 in relation to L1 in the brain?
age of acquisition, how it is learned, or level of proficiency
What is the type of bilingualism that results from learning L2 through the medium of L1?
subordinate bilingualism
How do the brain structures for L1 and L2 relate to each other?
somewhat different areas, but both are predominantly in overlapping areas of the left hemisphere
What might be the reason for the variation in right hemisphere involvement in L2 knowledge acquisition?
The lack of a single route to L2 knowledge, as second languages may be learned by many means.
What might be the advantage of early bilinguals in language processing?
They may intensify or accelerate the automatization of language processes.
What determines the initial recovery of language abilities after brain damage?
The language most used in the years prior to the incident causing the damage.
What is a possible implication of the differential impairment of language abilities after brain damage?
Different elements of language may be located in separate parts of the brain.
What is a possible pattern of language loss after brain damage, according to an early hypothesis?
The last-learned language would be the first lost, and L1 would be the last to remain.
What can be affected differentially by brain damage, according to the text?
Different languages and different abilities in the same language.
What is the primary focus of Chapter 3 in the context of L2 learners?
The linguistic perspective of why some L2 learners are more successful than others
What are the key differences among learners explored in this chapter?
Age, sex, aptitude, motivation, cognitive style, personality, and learning strategies
What is the limitation of children's language acquisition according to the chapter?
Children have only a limited number of years during which normal acquisition is possible.
What is the advantage of older learners in terms of language acquisition?
Greater learning capacity, including better memory for vocabulary
Why do younger learners tend to develop more native-like grammatical intuitions?
Because they are in a non-analytic processing mode
What happens to the brain's language learning capacity beyond a certain age?
Physiological changes cause the brain to lose its plasticity
What are the advantages that younger learners may have in informal and naturalistic L2 learning contexts?
being less inhibited, having weaker feelings of identity with people who speak the same native language, and receiving simplified language input from others
What are the advantages that older learners may have in formal instructional settings?
higher levels of pragmatic skills and knowledge of L1, which may transfer positively to L2 use, and more real-world knowledge
What are the sex differences in language acquisition and processing that have been observed?
women tend to outperform men in verbal fluency and memorizing complex forms, while men tend to be better at computing compositional rules
What is the assumption about language learning aptitude?
there is a specific talent for language learning
What is a possible advantage of higher levels of estrogen in women during the menstrual cycle?
higher levels of articulatory and motor ability
What is the relationship between androgen levels and language skills?
higher androgen levels correlate with better automatized skills
Younger learners are more successful in formal instructional settings.
False
Women tend to be better at computing compositional rules in language acquisition.
False
Higher androgen levels are associated with better semantic skills in language acquisition.
False
Younger learners have better memory for vocabulary than older learners.
False
The route to L2 knowledge is the same as the route to L1 knowledge.
False
Older learners have an advantage in language acquisition due to their weaker feelings of identity with their native language speakers.
False
Early bilinguals tend to have a slower automatization of language processes.
False
All learners, regardless of age, have the same capacity for language acquisition.
False
The last-learned language is the last to be lost after brain damage.
False
Older learners are capable of developing native-like grammatical intuitions.
False
Older learners tend to receive simplified language input from others, which facilitates their learning.
False
Different languages are equally affected by brain damage.
False
The brain's language learning capacity remains constant throughout life.
False
The assumption is that there is a general talent which is applicable to all areas of learning, not specific to language learning.
False
The language most used in the years prior to brain damage has no effect on initial recovery.
False
Younger learners have a limited number of years during which normal language acquisition is possible.
True
Age is the only difference among learners that affects language acquisition.
False
Different elements of language are located in the same part of the brain.
False
Cognitive style refers to the ability to perceive, conceptualize, organize, and recall information in a holistic manner.
False
Instrumental motivation involves learning a second language for personal interest and enjoyment.
False
Deductive processing involves discovering a pattern in input to formulate a generalization or rule.
False
Personality factors, such as extroversion, have been explored in the context of second language acquisition.
True
Inductive processing involves applying a rule to interpret particular instances of input.
False
Cognitive style is typically considered an absolute trait, with individuals being purely one type or another.
False
Higher anxiety tends to result in higher levels of success in L2 learning.
False
Metacognitive language-learning strategies involve direct analysis or synthesis of linguistic material.
False
Social/affective language-learning strategies involve interaction with others and self-monitoring of progress and knowledge states.
False
Lower anxiety is manifested by more risk-taking or less adventuresome behaviors.
False
Lack of anxiety is an important component of self-confidence in L2 learning.
True
Cognitive language-learning strategies involve planning and monitoring language learning.
False
An area in the left frontal lobe known as ______ appeared to be responsible for the ability to speak.
Broca's area
The ______ fissure is a cleavage that separates lobes in the brain.
Sylvian
Wernicke (1874) further identified a nearby area adjacent to the part of the cortex that processes ______ input as also being central to language processing.
audio
For the vast majority of individuals, language is represented primarily in the left ______ of the brain.
hemisphere
Subsequent research has shown that many more ______ of the brain are involved in language activity than was thought earlier.
areas
Core linguistic processes are typically housed in the ______ hemisphere.
left
The typical distribution of primary functions is probably due to the left hemisphere’s being computationally more ______ than the right
powerful
Such specialization of the two halves of the brain is known as ______
lateralization
Brain ______ is the ability of the brain to modify its connections or re-wire itself
plasticity
Lenneberg proposed that children had only a limited number of years during which they could acquire their L1 flawlessly even if they suffered ______ to the language areas
brain damage
Most individuals lose or recover multiple languages equally, but some recover one before the other, and some never recover use of one (either L1 or ______)
L2
These findings suggest that two or more languages may be represented in somewhat different locations in the brain and/or have different ______ of activation
networks
Younger learners are probably more successful in ______ and naturalistic L2 learning contexts.
informal
Older learners have higher levels of ______ skills and knowledge of L1.
pragmatic
Women tend to be better at memorizing complex ______.
forms
Higher androgen levels are associated with better ______ skills in language acquisition.
automatized
Older learners may have the advantage of higher levels of ______ knowledge.
real-world
Higher levels of estrogen are associated with better ______ skills in women during the menstrual cycle.
semantic
The study of the brain has generally involved limited numbers of ______ and there is considerable individual variation in how the brain is “wired”;
subjects
Researchers suggested a three-way possibility for how languages relate in an individual’s mind, which are called ______, compound, and subordinate bilingualism.
coordinate
Coordinate refers to parallel linguistic systems, independent of one another; An extreme case of ______ bilingualism would be the rare individual who has learned two or more languages in different contexts.
coordinate
There is no single answer to the question of how independent are the languages of multilingual speakers, both because there appears to be considerable individual variation among ______, and because there are very complex factors which must be taken into account.
speakers
It seems reasonable to conclude, however, that multiple language systems are neither completely ______ nor completely fused.
separate
The representation and organization of multiple languages in the ______ have been explored using brain-imaging technology.
brain
Integrative motivation is based on interest in learning L2 because of a desire to learn about or associate with the people who use ______.
it
Cognitive style refers to individuals’ preferred way of ______ information.
processing
Deductive processing begins with a prediction or ______ and then applies it to interpret particular instances of input.
rule
Inductive processing begins with examining ______ to discover some pattern and then formulates a generalization or rule that accounts for it.
input
Some of the traits which have been explored are listed in ______.
Table 4.4
Personality factors, such as ______, have been explored in the context of second language acquisition.
extroversion
What aspects of a situation and interaction are considered microsocial contexts in language production?
Level of formality, participants' relationship to one another, and if the interaction is public or intimate
What type of variation in learners' language is of interest from a linguistic and psychological perspective?
Variation that occurs in learners' language as they develop increasing competence over a period of time
What theory explains how speakers adjust their pronunciation and grammatical complexity to sound more like their interlocutors?
Accommodation Theory
What feature of language is associated with linguistic register, according to the social perspective?
Informal-formal features
What do native speakers tend to do when speaking to an L2 learner who is not fluent?
Simplify their language
What is the focus of research on the effect of microsocial contexts on language production?
The effect of microsocial contexts on language production
What are the three contextual dimensions that can affect learners' L2 production?
Communicative contexts, Psychological contexts, and Microsocial contexts
How does the linguistic context influence the production of the phonological variable [ŋ] in 'coming'?
The phonological variable [ŋ] in 'coming' is more likely to be used before a word that begins with a back consonant or before a pause.
What is an example of a psychological context that can influence L2 production?
The level of attention given to language form during production, such as in a formal lesson versus informal conversation.
What role do followers of behaviorist learning theories consider input to play in language acquisition?
Input forms the necessary stimuli and feedback which learners respond to and imitate.
How do social approaches consider the role of interaction in language acquisition?
Interaction is helpful, and perhaps necessary, for the development of advanced levels of L2 proficiency.
How can the part of speech influence the production of the phonological variable [ŋ] or [n] in 'coming' or 'comin''?
The part of speech can influence the production of [ŋ] or [n], with [ŋ] being more frequent in one-syllable nouns and [n] in the progressive form of verbs.
What is the role of comprehensible input in Krashen's Monitor Model of language acquisition?
Comprehensible input is considered not only necessary but sufficient in itself to account for SLA.
What is an example of a microsocial context that can influence learners' L2 production?
The social context of a formal lesson versus informal conversation.
Why is it important to consider the communicative contexts in which language is learned and used?
Because the communicative contexts can influence learners' L2 production, and understanding these contexts can inform language teaching and learning.
What is the difference between 'input' and 'intake' in the context of language acquisition?
Input refers to the data available to the learner, while intake refers to the input that is attended to and processed.
How do social approaches consider the role of input in determining what features of language are learned?
Some researchers consider input to determine what features of language are learned, while others see input as primarily 'data' for innate linguistic and/or cognitive processes.
What is the significance of input and interaction in language acquisition, according to social approaches?
Input and interaction are considered essential for language acquisition, particularly at advanced levels.
What is the primary role of negotiation for meaning in the Interaction Hypothesis, according to which it facilitates SLA?
It connects input, internal learner capacities, particularly selective attention, and output in productive ways.
How does Sociocultural Theory view the role of interaction in SLA?
It is seen as a causative force in acquisition, and all learning is seen as essentially a social process.
What is the transformation that occurs in learning according to Sociocultural Theory?
Simple innate mental activities are transformed into higher-order, more complex mental functions.
What is the significance of symbolic mediation in Sociocultural Theory?
It provides a link between a person's current mental state and higher-order functions, facilitating learning.
What is the role of social experience in SLA, according to the Interaction Hypothesis?
It allows for negotiation of meaning and corrective feedback, facilitating acquisition.
What is the key difference between the Interaction Hypothesis and Sociocultural Theory in terms of their views on interaction in SLA?
The Interaction Hypothesis views interaction as a facilitator, while Sociocultural Theory views it as a causative force.
What is the outcome of learning through mediation, according to the text?
Learners have heightened awareness of their own mental abilities and more control over their thought processes.
What is the main context for symbolic mediation, as described in the text?
Interpersonal interaction between learners and experts.
What is the role of scaffolding in language development, according to the text?
Scaffolding provides learners with chunks of talk that they can use to express concepts beyond their independent means.
What type of interaction is also viewed by Vygotsky as a sociocultural phenomenon, besides interpersonal interaction?
Intrapersonal interaction, or communication that occurs within an individual's own mind.
What is the main idea behind S-C Theory, according to the text?
Mental functions that are beyond an individual's current level must be performed in collaboration with other people before they are achieved independently.
What is the purpose of vertical constructions, as mentioned in the text?
To provide learners with chunks of talk that they can use to express concepts beyond their independent means.
From a social perspective, linguistic competence involves only the language itself.
False
L2 learners must know how to categorize objects and events, but not how to express experiences in different ways.
False
Researchers suggest that linguistic competence is sufficient to account for what is being acquired in any language.
False
Understanding one's own role and others' roles is not necessary for appropriate language use.
False
Speakers who can produce grammatical sentences of a language have developed linguistic competence and therefore are part of the language community.
True
Social context does not affect language learning.
False
A language community is a group of people who share a common language but do not share knowledge of social and cultural norms.
False
Communicative competence involves knowing only the linguistic structure of a language.
False
Macrosocial factors refer to the immediate surrounding circumstances that affect language learning.
False
One characteristic of L2 learner language is that it is highly uniform and consistent.
False
Microsocial factors include L2 variation, input and interaction, and Vygotsky's Socialcultural Theory.
True
The definition of communicative competence is independent of the social context within which the language is learned and used.
False
Microsocial contexts include the level of formality, participants’ relationship to one another, and if the interaction is public or intimate.
True
Accommodation Theory states that learners change their pronunciation to sound more like their interlocutors.
False
Variation in learners’ language as they develop increasing competence over time is of particular interest from a social perspective.
False
Native speakers tend to simplify their language when speaking to a fluent L2 learner.
False
Linguistic and psychological perspectives are interested in variation that occurs in different contexts at a single point in time.
False
Accommodation Theory explains how learners adjust their language use to suit their interlocutors.
False
Input is considered essential for language acquisition by followers of behaviorist learning theories and Krashen's Monitor Model.
True
Social approaches to language acquisition consider interaction to be negligible in determining what features of language are learned.
False
Within social approaches, input is only considered important for innate linguistic and/or cognitive processes.
False
The role of input is viewed similarly across different linguistic, psychological, and social approaches to language acquisition.
False
According to the Interaction Hypothesis, negotiation for meaning facilitates SLA because it helps learners to focus their attention on input.
True
Input is not considered important for language acquisition within psychological approaches.
False
Sociocultural Theory views interaction as a causative force in language acquisition.
True
Social approaches to language acquisition do not consider the nature of interaction in language acquisition.
False
In Sociocultural Theory, language is the primary route to learning.
True
Negotiation for meaning is a typical process in Sociocultural Theory.
False
Higher-order mental functions are the result of innate mental activities in Sociocultural Theory.
False
Sociocultural Theory views language learning as an individual process.
False
Communicative Competence refers to what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular ______
language community
A ______ community is a group of people who share knowledge of a common language.
language
Microsocial factors affecting language learning include ______, input & interaction, and Vygotsky's Socialcultural Theory.
L2 variation
Macrosocial factors relate SLA to broader ______, political, and educational environments.
cultural
According to Communicative Competence, a speaker needs to know when to speak (or not), what to say to ______, and how to say it appropriately in any given situations.
whom
The content of “what a speaker needs to know,” as well as judgments of relative success in attaining that knowledge, depend on the ______ context within which he or she learns and is using the language.
social
Microsocial contexts refer to the features of ______ and interaction within which language is being produced, interpreted, and negotiated.
situation
From linguistic and psychological perspectives, ______ variation that occurs in learners' language as they develop increasing competence over a period of time is of particular interest.
developmental
Variation that occurs in different contexts at a single point in time is of more interest from a ______ perspective.
social
Accommodation Theory states that ______ tend to simplify their language when they're talking to an L2 learner who is not fluent.
native speakers
According to Accommodation Theory, speakers change their ______ and even grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they're talking to.
pronunciation
From a social perspective, ______ features associated with linguistic register are often correlated with variation that occurs in different contexts at a single point in time.
informal-formal
Some relevant contextual dimensions are: Communicative contexts 1.Linguistic contexts 2._______ contexts 3.Microsocial contexts
Psycological
The phonological variable [ŋ] in coming is more likely to be used before a word which begins with a ______ consonant or before a pause
back
The production of [ŋ] is most frequent in one-syllable nouns such as ring or ______
song
The variable [n] in comin’ is more likely before a ______ consonant
front
The copula of That is a nice car may be produced during a formal second language lesson or in a writing exercise but omitted in informal ______
conversation
The part of speech can also be a relevant linguistic context, with production of [ŋ] most frequent in one-syllable nouns such as ring or song, and [n] in the progressive form of ______
verbs
Other types of interaction which can enhance SLA include feedback from ______ which makes NNSs aware that their usage is not acceptable in some way,
NSs
To achieve full native ______, corrective feedback is common in L2 and may indeed be necessary for most learners to ultimately reach native-like levels of proficiency when that is the desired goal.
competence
Negative feedback to L2 learners may be in the form of direct correction, including explicit statements like That is the wrong ______;
word
Or the negative feedback may come as indirect correction, which may include several interactional modification forms to facilitate ______ to cognitive processing.
intake
Language input may “go in one ear and out the other,” and it contributes to acquisition only if it is “let in” to the mind for ______;
processing
I.e. if it becomes ______.
intake
One type of intrapersonal interaction that occurs frequently in beginning stages of L2 learning – and in later stages when the content and structure of L2 input stretches or goes beyond existing ______ competence – makes use of L1 resources.
language
This is the self-talk which many children (in particular) engage in that leads to the inner ______ that more mature individuals use to control thought and behavior.
speech
Private ______ by these children provides good evidence that even when they were not interacting with others, they were not merely passively assimilating L2 input;
speech
Audible private ______ may continue among adult learners in specialized, social settings where imitation or other controlled response to linguistic input is considered “normal” behavior.
speech
This takes place through translation to oneself as part of ______ problem-solving processes.
interpretive
Yet another type (which was of particular interest to Vygotsky) is ______ speech.
private
What do linguistic, psychological, and social perspectives on SLA address?
The what, how, and why questions of SLA
What do linguistic perspectives on SLA primarily focus on?
The what question
Why are some learners more successful than others in acquiring L2 knowledge?
The why question
What do psychological perspectives on SLA primarily focus on?
The how question
What do social perspectives on SLA primarily focus on?
The why question
What implications do findings about SLA suggest for L2 learning and teaching?
Implications for L2 learning and teaching
What does it mean for L2 learners to achieve 'near-native' competence?
It means that there is little or no perceptible difference between their language performance and that of native speakers.
What is an important implication for L2 learning and teaching based on the research on SLA?
Recognizing individual and social factors that affect language learning outcomes, and adapting teaching approaches to prioritize goals that are compatible with learners' goals.
What is the role of intentional effort in L2 acquisition?
Intentional effort is required in L2 acquisition, unlike L1 acquisition.
Why is it important to consider learners' goals in L2 learning and teaching?
Because it allows for setting priorities for learning and teaching that are compatible with learners' goals.
What is a key difference between L1 and L2 acquisition?
L1 acquisition does not require intentional effort, whereas L2 acquisition usually does.
What do individual and social factors affect in L2 development?
Ultimate outcomes, specifically the final state of L2 development.
Linguistic perspectives on SLA primarily focus on answering the question 'How does the learner acquire L2 knowledge?'
False
Social perspectives on SLA are concerned with the question 'How does the learner acquire L2 knowledge?'
False
The final state of L2 development is always considered to be completely 'native'
False
Linguistic, psychological, and social perspectives on SLA address the same question
False
The perspectives on SLA are mutually exclusive and do not overlap
False
The book considers the 'What', 'How', and 'Why' questions separately and independently
False
L2 learners can achieve a completely “native” competence in a second language.
False
The ultimate outcomes of L2 acquisition are only affected by individual factors.
False
The goals of L2 learning and teaching should be determined by the teacher.
False
L2 acquisition usually requires no intentional effort.
False
Recognition of individual and social factors affecting L2 acquisition can lead to less efficient language learning.
False
The multiple dimensions involved in L2 acquisition include only linguistic and psychological factors.
False
Approaching near-native competence means that there is a significant difference between the language performance of L2 learners and native speakers.
False
Most researchers consider the final state of L2 development to be completely "native".
False
L2 acquisition usually requires unintentional effort.
False
Recognizing individual and social factors can contribute to inefficiency and ineffectiveness in second language development.
False
The goals and priorities for learning and teaching L2 should be incompatible with the multiple dimensions involved.
False
The text suggests that there is a single answer to the question of how independent are the languages of multilingual speakers.
False
Linguistic, psychological, and social perspectives on SLA address the same questions.
False
The final state of L2 development is considered to be completely 'native'.
False
Psychological perspectives on SLA primarily focus on the question of 'what' the L2 learner comes to know.
False
All three perspectives (linguistic, psychological, and social) contribute equally to our understanding of SLA.
True
Research on SLA has not led to any clear implications for L2 learning and teaching.
False
Linguistic perspectives on SLA primarily focus on the question of 'why' some learners are more successful than others.
False
Linguistic, psychological, and social perspectives on SLA address the same ______ questions.
what
Linguistic contributions in answer to ______ questions, psychological contributions in answer to how, and social contributions in answer to why.
what
What exactly does the L2 learner come to ______?
know
How does the learner acquire L2 ______?
knowledge
Why are some learners more successful than ______?
others
We would not consider the final state of L2 development to be completely ______.
native
The judgment that L2 learners have approached or achieved “near-native” or “native-like” ______ means that there is little or no perceptible difference between their language performance and that of native speakers.
competence
Knowledge of L2 goes well beyond what can be consciously learned and taught, but ______ acquisition usually requires intentional effort.
L2
We can not control most of these factors, but recognizing them can contribute to ______ and effectiveness in second language development.
efficiency
As a starting point, our findings about SLA suggest the following general guidelines for L2 learning and ______:
teaching
Approach learning/teaching that are compatible with an appreciation of the multiple ______ that are involved: linguistic, psychological, and social.
dimensions
Consider the ______ that individuals and groups have for learning an additional language.
goals
Explore the different types of bilingualism, including compound and subordinate bilingualism, and how multiple language structures are organized in relation to one another. Learn about the characteristics of simultaneous bilingualism in early childhood and the role of L1 in learning L2.
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