Bilingualism and Language Structures

What are the three stages involved in the Information Processing approach to language learning?

What determines the priorities of language learners' processing of input?

What is an example of U-shaped development in language learning?

What is the role of intake in the language learning process?

What is the output of language learning in the Information Processing approach?

What is the characteristic of L2 development according to the Information Processing approach?

What is the type of bilingualism that is believed to characterize simultaneous bilingualism in early childhood?

In which hemisphere of the brain are both languages, L1 and L2, predominantly stored?

At what age does research suggest that L2 acquisition involves more right-hemisphere involvement?

What factor may influence the organization of L2 in relation to L1 in the brain?

What is the type of bilingualism that results from learning L2 through the medium of L1?

How do the brain structures for L1 and L2 relate to each other?

What might be the reason for the variation in right hemisphere involvement in L2 knowledge acquisition?

What might be the advantage of early bilinguals in language processing?

What determines the initial recovery of language abilities after brain damage?

What is a possible implication of the differential impairment of language abilities after brain damage?

What is a possible pattern of language loss after brain damage, according to an early hypothesis?

What can be affected differentially by brain damage, according to the text?

What is the primary focus of Chapter 3 in the context of L2 learners?

What are the key differences among learners explored in this chapter?

What is the limitation of children's language acquisition according to the chapter?

What is the advantage of older learners in terms of language acquisition?

Why do younger learners tend to develop more native-like grammatical intuitions?

What happens to the brain's language learning capacity beyond a certain age?

What are the advantages that younger learners may have in informal and naturalistic L2 learning contexts?

What are the advantages that older learners may have in formal instructional settings?

What are the sex differences in language acquisition and processing that have been observed?

What is the assumption about language learning aptitude?

What is a possible advantage of higher levels of estrogen in women during the menstrual cycle?

What is the relationship between androgen levels and language skills?

Younger learners are more successful in formal instructional settings.

Women tend to be better at computing compositional rules in language acquisition.

Higher androgen levels are associated with better semantic skills in language acquisition.

Younger learners have better memory for vocabulary than older learners.

The route to L2 knowledge is the same as the route to L1 knowledge.

Older learners have an advantage in language acquisition due to their weaker feelings of identity with their native language speakers.

Early bilinguals tend to have a slower automatization of language processes.

All learners, regardless of age, have the same capacity for language acquisition.

The last-learned language is the last to be lost after brain damage.

Older learners are capable of developing native-like grammatical intuitions.

Older learners tend to receive simplified language input from others, which facilitates their learning.

Different languages are equally affected by brain damage.

The brain's language learning capacity remains constant throughout life.

The assumption is that there is a general talent which is applicable to all areas of learning, not specific to language learning.

The language most used in the years prior to brain damage has no effect on initial recovery.

Younger learners have a limited number of years during which normal language acquisition is possible.

Age is the only difference among learners that affects language acquisition.

Different elements of language are located in the same part of the brain.

Cognitive style refers to the ability to perceive, conceptualize, organize, and recall information in a holistic manner.

Instrumental motivation involves learning a second language for personal interest and enjoyment.

Deductive processing involves discovering a pattern in input to formulate a generalization or rule.

Personality factors, such as extroversion, have been explored in the context of second language acquisition.

Inductive processing involves applying a rule to interpret particular instances of input.

Cognitive style is typically considered an absolute trait, with individuals being purely one type or another.

Higher anxiety tends to result in higher levels of success in L2 learning.

Metacognitive language-learning strategies involve direct analysis or synthesis of linguistic material.

Social/affective language-learning strategies involve interaction with others and self-monitoring of progress and knowledge states.

Lower anxiety is manifested by more risk-taking or less adventuresome behaviors.

Lack of anxiety is an important component of self-confidence in L2 learning.

Cognitive language-learning strategies involve planning and monitoring language learning.

An area in the left frontal lobe known as ______ appeared to be responsible for the ability to speak.

The ______ fissure is a cleavage that separates lobes in the brain.

Wernicke (1874) further identified a nearby area adjacent to the part of the cortex that processes ______ input as also being central to language processing.

For the vast majority of individuals, language is represented primarily in the left ______ of the brain.

Subsequent research has shown that many more ______ of the brain are involved in language activity than was thought earlier.

Core linguistic processes are typically housed in the ______ hemisphere.

The typical distribution of primary functions is probably due to the left hemisphere’s being computationally more ______ than the right

Such specialization of the two halves of the brain is known as ______

Brain ______ is the ability of the brain to modify its connections or re-wire itself

Lenneberg proposed that children had only a limited number of years during which they could acquire their L1 flawlessly even if they suffered ______ to the language areas

Most individuals lose or recover multiple languages equally, but some recover one before the other, and some never recover use of one (either L1 or ______)

These findings suggest that two or more languages may be represented in somewhat different locations in the brain and/or have different ______ of activation

Younger learners are probably more successful in ______ and naturalistic L2 learning contexts.

Older learners have higher levels of ______ skills and knowledge of L1.

Women tend to be better at memorizing complex ______.

Higher androgen levels are associated with better ______ skills in language acquisition.

Older learners may have the advantage of higher levels of ______ knowledge.

Higher levels of estrogen are associated with better ______ skills in women during the menstrual cycle.

The study of the brain has generally involved limited numbers of ______ and there is considerable individual variation in how the brain is “wired”;

Researchers suggested a three-way possibility for how languages relate in an individual’s mind, which are called ______, compound, and subordinate bilingualism.

Coordinate refers to parallel linguistic systems, independent of one another; An extreme case of ______ bilingualism would be the rare individual who has learned two or more languages in different contexts.

There is no single answer to the question of how independent are the languages of multilingual speakers, both because there appears to be considerable individual variation among ______, and because there are very complex factors which must be taken into account.

It seems reasonable to conclude, however, that multiple language systems are neither completely ______ nor completely fused.

The representation and organization of multiple languages in the ______ have been explored using brain-imaging technology.

Integrative motivation is based on interest in learning L2 because of a desire to learn about or associate with the people who use ______.

Cognitive style refers to individuals’ preferred way of ______ information.

Deductive processing begins with a prediction or ______ and then applies it to interpret particular instances of input.

Inductive processing begins with examining ______ to discover some pattern and then formulates a generalization or rule that accounts for it.

Some of the traits which have been explored are listed in ______.

Personality factors, such as ______, have been explored in the context of second language acquisition.

What aspects of a situation and interaction are considered microsocial contexts in language production?

What type of variation in learners' language is of interest from a linguistic and psychological perspective?

What theory explains how speakers adjust their pronunciation and grammatical complexity to sound more like their interlocutors?

What feature of language is associated with linguistic register, according to the social perspective?

What do native speakers tend to do when speaking to an L2 learner who is not fluent?

What is the focus of research on the effect of microsocial contexts on language production?

What are the three contextual dimensions that can affect learners' L2 production?

How does the linguistic context influence the production of the phonological variable [ŋ] in 'coming'?

What is an example of a psychological context that can influence L2 production?

What role do followers of behaviorist learning theories consider input to play in language acquisition?

How do social approaches consider the role of interaction in language acquisition?

How can the part of speech influence the production of the phonological variable [ŋ] or [n] in 'coming' or 'comin''?

What is the role of comprehensible input in Krashen's Monitor Model of language acquisition?

What is an example of a microsocial context that can influence learners' L2 production?

Why is it important to consider the communicative contexts in which language is learned and used?

What is the difference between 'input' and 'intake' in the context of language acquisition?

How do social approaches consider the role of input in determining what features of language are learned?

What is the significance of input and interaction in language acquisition, according to social approaches?

What is the primary role of negotiation for meaning in the Interaction Hypothesis, according to which it facilitates SLA?

How does Sociocultural Theory view the role of interaction in SLA?

What is the transformation that occurs in learning according to Sociocultural Theory?

What is the significance of symbolic mediation in Sociocultural Theory?

What is the role of social experience in SLA, according to the Interaction Hypothesis?

What is the key difference between the Interaction Hypothesis and Sociocultural Theory in terms of their views on interaction in SLA?

What is the outcome of learning through mediation, according to the text?

What is the main context for symbolic mediation, as described in the text?

What is the role of scaffolding in language development, according to the text?

What type of interaction is also viewed by Vygotsky as a sociocultural phenomenon, besides interpersonal interaction?

What is the main idea behind S-C Theory, according to the text?

What is the purpose of vertical constructions, as mentioned in the text?

From a social perspective, linguistic competence involves only the language itself.

L2 learners must know how to categorize objects and events, but not how to express experiences in different ways.

Researchers suggest that linguistic competence is sufficient to account for what is being acquired in any language.

Understanding one's own role and others' roles is not necessary for appropriate language use.

Speakers who can produce grammatical sentences of a language have developed linguistic competence and therefore are part of the language community.

Social context does not affect language learning.

A language community is a group of people who share a common language but do not share knowledge of social and cultural norms.

Communicative competence involves knowing only the linguistic structure of a language.

Macrosocial factors refer to the immediate surrounding circumstances that affect language learning.

One characteristic of L2 learner language is that it is highly uniform and consistent.

Microsocial factors include L2 variation, input and interaction, and Vygotsky's Socialcultural Theory.

The definition of communicative competence is independent of the social context within which the language is learned and used.

Microsocial contexts include the level of formality, participants’ relationship to one another, and if the interaction is public or intimate.

Accommodation Theory states that learners change their pronunciation to sound more like their interlocutors.

Variation in learners’ language as they develop increasing competence over time is of particular interest from a social perspective.

Native speakers tend to simplify their language when speaking to a fluent L2 learner.

Linguistic and psychological perspectives are interested in variation that occurs in different contexts at a single point in time.

Accommodation Theory explains how learners adjust their language use to suit their interlocutors.

Input is considered essential for language acquisition by followers of behaviorist learning theories and Krashen's Monitor Model.

Social approaches to language acquisition consider interaction to be negligible in determining what features of language are learned.

Within social approaches, input is only considered important for innate linguistic and/or cognitive processes.

The role of input is viewed similarly across different linguistic, psychological, and social approaches to language acquisition.

According to the Interaction Hypothesis, negotiation for meaning facilitates SLA because it helps learners to focus their attention on input.

Input is not considered important for language acquisition within psychological approaches.

Sociocultural Theory views interaction as a causative force in language acquisition.

Social approaches to language acquisition do not consider the nature of interaction in language acquisition.

In Sociocultural Theory, language is the primary route to learning.

Negotiation for meaning is a typical process in Sociocultural Theory.

Higher-order mental functions are the result of innate mental activities in Sociocultural Theory.

Sociocultural Theory views language learning as an individual process.

Communicative Competence refers to what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular ______

A ______ community is a group of people who share knowledge of a common language.

Microsocial factors affecting language learning include ______, input & interaction, and Vygotsky's Socialcultural Theory.

Macrosocial factors relate SLA to broader ______, political, and educational environments.

According to Communicative Competence, a speaker needs to know when to speak (or not), what to say to ______, and how to say it appropriately in any given situations.

The content of “what a speaker needs to know,” as well as judgments of relative success in attaining that knowledge, depend on the ______ context within which he or she learns and is using the language.

Microsocial contexts refer to the features of ______ and interaction within which language is being produced, interpreted, and negotiated.

From linguistic and psychological perspectives, ______ variation that occurs in learners' language as they develop increasing competence over a period of time is of particular interest.

Variation that occurs in different contexts at a single point in time is of more interest from a ______ perspective.

Accommodation Theory states that ______ tend to simplify their language when they're talking to an L2 learner who is not fluent.

According to Accommodation Theory, speakers change their ______ and even grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they're talking to.

From a social perspective, ______ features associated with linguistic register are often correlated with variation that occurs in different contexts at a single point in time.

Some relevant contextual dimensions are: Communicative contexts 1.Linguistic contexts 2._______ contexts 3.Microsocial contexts

The phonological variable [ŋ] in coming is more likely to be used before a word which begins with a ______ consonant or before a pause

The production of [ŋ] is most frequent in one-syllable nouns such as ring or ______

The variable [n] in comin’ is more likely before a ______ consonant

The copula of That is a nice car may be produced during a formal second language lesson or in a writing exercise but omitted in informal ______

The part of speech can also be a relevant linguistic context, with production of [ŋ] most frequent in one-syllable nouns such as ring or song, and [n] in the progressive form of ______

Other types of interaction which can enhance SLA include feedback from ______ which makes NNSs aware that their usage is not acceptable in some way,

To achieve full native ______, corrective feedback is common in L2 and may indeed be necessary for most learners to ultimately reach native-like levels of proficiency when that is the desired goal.

Negative feedback to L2 learners may be in the form of direct correction, including explicit statements like That is the wrong ______;

Or the negative feedback may come as indirect correction, which may include several interactional modification forms to facilitate ______ to cognitive processing.

Language input may “go in one ear and out the other,” and it contributes to acquisition only if it is “let in” to the mind for ______;

I.e. if it becomes ______.

One type of intrapersonal interaction that occurs frequently in beginning stages of L2 learning – and in later stages when the content and structure of L2 input stretches or goes beyond existing ______ competence – makes use of L1 resources.

This is the self-talk which many children (in particular) engage in that leads to the inner ______ that more mature individuals use to control thought and behavior.

Private ______ by these children provides good evidence that even when they were not interacting with others, they were not merely passively assimilating L2 input;

Audible private ______ may continue among adult learners in specialized, social settings where imitation or other controlled response to linguistic input is considered “normal” behavior.

This takes place through translation to oneself as part of ______ problem-solving processes.

Yet another type (which was of particular interest to Vygotsky) is ______ speech.

What do linguistic, psychological, and social perspectives on SLA address?

What do linguistic perspectives on SLA primarily focus on?

Why are some learners more successful than others in acquiring L2 knowledge?

What do psychological perspectives on SLA primarily focus on?

What do social perspectives on SLA primarily focus on?

What implications do findings about SLA suggest for L2 learning and teaching?

What does it mean for L2 learners to achieve 'near-native' competence?

What is an important implication for L2 learning and teaching based on the research on SLA?

What is the role of intentional effort in L2 acquisition?

Why is it important to consider learners' goals in L2 learning and teaching?

What is a key difference between L1 and L2 acquisition?

What do individual and social factors affect in L2 development?

Linguistic perspectives on SLA primarily focus on answering the question 'How does the learner acquire L2 knowledge?'

Social perspectives on SLA are concerned with the question 'How does the learner acquire L2 knowledge?'

The final state of L2 development is always considered to be completely 'native'

Linguistic, psychological, and social perspectives on SLA address the same question

The perspectives on SLA are mutually exclusive and do not overlap

The book considers the 'What', 'How', and 'Why' questions separately and independently

L2 learners can achieve a completely “native” competence in a second language.

The ultimate outcomes of L2 acquisition are only affected by individual factors.

The goals of L2 learning and teaching should be determined by the teacher.

L2 acquisition usually requires no intentional effort.

Recognition of individual and social factors affecting L2 acquisition can lead to less efficient language learning.

The multiple dimensions involved in L2 acquisition include only linguistic and psychological factors.

Approaching near-native competence means that there is a significant difference between the language performance of L2 learners and native speakers.

Most researchers consider the final state of L2 development to be completely "native".

L2 acquisition usually requires unintentional effort.

Recognizing individual and social factors can contribute to inefficiency and ineffectiveness in second language development.

The goals and priorities for learning and teaching L2 should be incompatible with the multiple dimensions involved.

The text suggests that there is a single answer to the question of how independent are the languages of multilingual speakers.

Linguistic, psychological, and social perspectives on SLA address the same questions.

The final state of L2 development is considered to be completely 'native'.

Psychological perspectives on SLA primarily focus on the question of 'what' the L2 learner comes to know.

All three perspectives (linguistic, psychological, and social) contribute equally to our understanding of SLA.

Research on SLA has not led to any clear implications for L2 learning and teaching.

Linguistic perspectives on SLA primarily focus on the question of 'why' some learners are more successful than others.

Linguistic, psychological, and social perspectives on SLA address the same ______ questions.

Linguistic contributions in answer to ______ questions, psychological contributions in answer to how, and social contributions in answer to why.

What exactly does the L2 learner come to ______?

How does the learner acquire L2 ______?

Why are some learners more successful than ______?

We would not consider the final state of L2 development to be completely ______.

The judgment that L2 learners have approached or achieved “near-native” or “native-like” ______ means that there is little or no perceptible difference between their language performance and that of native speakers.

Knowledge of L2 goes well beyond what can be consciously learned and taught, but ______ acquisition usually requires intentional effort.

We can not control most of these factors, but recognizing them can contribute to ______ and effectiveness in second language development.

As a starting point, our findings about SLA suggest the following general guidelines for L2 learning and ______:

Approach learning/teaching that are compatible with an appreciation of the multiple ______ that are involved: linguistic, psychological, and social.

Consider the ______ that individuals and groups have for learning an additional language.