Chapter 5: Personality and Individual Differences - PDF

5 Source: Jeff Chiu/AP/Shutterstock Personality and Individual Differences...

5 Source: Jeff Chiu/AP/Shutterstock Personality and Individual Differences LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 5-1 Describe the differences between 5-4 Discuss how the concepts of core person–job fit and person– self-evaluation (CSE), self-monitoring, organization fit. and proactive personality contribute to the understanding of personality. 5-2 Describe personality, the way it is measured, and the factors that 5-5 Describe how the situation affects shape it. whether personality predicts behavior. 5-3 Describe the strengths and weak- 5-6 Demonstrate the relevance of intel- nesses of the Myers-Briggs Type lectual and physical abilities to OB. Indicator (MBTI) personality frame- work, the Big Five Model, and the 5-7 Contrast terminal and instrumental Dark Triad. values. 168 M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 168 13/12/22 2:39 AM  Personality and Individual Differences CHAPTER 5 169 Employability Skills Matrix (ESM) Myth or An Ethical Point/ Toward a Experiential Ethical Case Science? Choice Counterpoint Better World Exercise Dilemma Incident Critical Thinking & Creativity ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Communication ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Collaboration ✓ ✓ ✓ Self-Management ✓ ✓ ✓ Social Responsibility ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Leadership ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Career Management ✓ ✓ ✓ THE RISE AND FALL OF THERANOS M any of the best leaders can communicate their vision and inspire people to pursue a common goal. Some of the traits that best predict these behaviors may be essential for effective leadership, such as a charismatic personality. However, traits often associated with influential leadership, including confidence, charisma, and willingness to take risks, are also strongly related to narcissism. Specifically, grandiose narcissists tend to be confident, extroverted, and self-promoting, often helping them assume authority positions in organizations. In extreme cases, narcissism can lead to abuse, exploitation, and ethical misconduct. The question is: How can we tell the difference between a leader who is authentically inspiring people to pursue a common goal and a narcissistic leader with a hidden agenda? The answer is that it can be difficult. The rise and fall of Theranos provides an excellent example of the interplay between narcissistic personality traits and leadership. Elizabeth Holmes, CEO of the now-defunct company, was once heralded as the next Steve Jobs. At nineteen, she dropped out of Stanford with an ambitious vision to start Theranos, a consumer health care technology startup. At one point, the company was valued at $9 billion. Holmes achieved this success by convincing many powerful and influential people that her company would revolutionize the health care industry. With just a few drops of blood, the company’s technology could supposedly run hundreds of tests. But it turns out Theranos’s technology was too good to be true. Holmes and the former president of Theranos, Sunny Balwani, now face federal fraud charges for engaging in schemes to defraud investors, doctors, and patients. M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 169 13/12/22 2:39 AM  170 PART 2 The Individual Many now wonder how Holmes could pull off such a large-scale deception and convince so many seemingly intelligent and influential people to believe it. It appears that Holmes’s skill for storytelling and her passion allowed her to persuade investors and others to believe in the technology. Holmes would frequently tell others about her uncle, who was diagnosed with skin cancer that rapidly spread, eventually leading to his death. Holmes hoped that her company’s blood-testing technology could prevent this from happening to other families. Unfortunately, the case against Holmes shows that she was likely motivated more by fame and money than revolutionizing the health care industry and saving lives. However, narcissism may not be an entirely negative trait. For example, leadership expert Michael Maccoby believes that there are “productive narcissists,” or leaders with a certain degree of narcissism that allows them to achieve their idealistic visions. Maccoby asserts that many respected and influential leaders in history, like the pioneers of the technological revolution Andy Grove, Steve Jobs, and Bill Gates, were productive narcissists. Without this trait, these leaders would lack the confidence to convince others of their abilities and ideas. On the other hand, some scholars see true narcissistic leaders as damaging to organizations. Field studies have shown that narcissistic CEOs are more likely to engage in fraud and white-collar crime. Furthermore, when in powerful positions, narcissistic CEOs tend to fire or ignore those who challenge them. Charles O’Reilly, a researcher who studies how CEOs’ personalities shape organizations, believes there is a key to determining if someone is a productive or destructive narcissist. Organizations often only rely upon interviews and other hiring methods, which a narcissistic leader can easily manipulate. Instead, gathering testimonies or ratings of the leader’s personality from individuals who worked with them can be revealing. These other sources of information could ultimately save the organization from a narcissistic leader’s potentially disastrous influence.1 P ersonality is indeed a strong factor for many life and work outcomes. Personality plays a major role in success in the workplace, although the effects are not always direct; sometimes they are nuanced. We will explain extroversion, conscientiousness, openness, agreeableness, and emotional stability: the traits that comprise the Big Five, the most well-defined and supported personality framework to date. We will also review frameworks that describe an individual’s personality and tendencies. Linking Individuals to the Workplace 5-1 Describe the differences between person–job fit and Years ago, organizations were concerned with personality, in part because they used it to match individuals to specific jobs. That concern has expanded to person–organization fit. include how well the individual’s personality and values match the organization. M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 170 13/12/22 2:39 AM  Personality and Individual Differences CHAPTER 5 171 Why? Because managers today are less interested in an applicant’s ability to perform a specific job than with the ability to further the organization’s mission and to retain the employee (rather than leaving for another organization).2 For example, Twegos, a firm that provides a person–organization value fit assessment, assesses truck driver fit with their carrier, trainers, dispatchers, and managers in order to increase engagement and reduce turnover.3 Still, one of the first types of fit managers look for is person–job fit. Person–Job Fit The effort to match job requirements with personality characteristics is described by John Holland’s personality–job fit theory, one of the more proven personality–job fit theory A theory that theories in use internationally.4 The Vocational Preference Inventory question- identifies six personality types and proposes naire contains 160 occupational titles. Respondents indicate which they like or that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines dislike, and their answers form occupation interest profiles. Holland presented satisfaction and turnover. six personality types (see the following section on personality) and proposed that satisfaction and the propensity to leave a position depend on how well indi- viduals match their personalities to a job. Exhibit 5-1 describes the six types, their personality characteristics, and examples of the congruent occupations for each. Notably, this theory tends to be supported with person–job fit strongly predicting job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and intentions to quit.5 There are diversity implications for person–job fit that speak to workers’ expectations that jobs will be tailored to them. In individualistic countries where workers expect to be heard and respected by management, increasing person–job fit by tailoring the job to the person increases the individual’s job satisfaction. However, in collectivistic countries, person–job fit is a weaker pre- dictor of job satisfaction because people do not expect to have a job tailored to them, so they value person–job fit efforts less.6 Therefore, managers in col- lectivistic cultures should not violate cultural norms by designing jobs for indi- viduals; rather, they should seek people who will likely thrive in jobs that have already been structured.7 Furthermore, research suggests that giving workers more autonomy in designing their jobs to match their strengths and interests may be more effective for older employees than younger ones. As employees age, they become more aware of their own strengths and interests, meaning that giving them the opportunity to fit the job to their interests, personalities, and strengths can be an effective approach.8 Exhibit 5-1 Holland’s Typology of Personality and Congruent Occupations T ype Personality Characteristics Congruent Occupations Realistic: Prefers physical activities that Shy, genuine, persistent, stable, conforming, Mechanic, drill press operator, require skill, strength, and coordination practical assembly-line worker, farmer Investigative: Prefers activities that involve Analytical, original, curious, independent Biologist, economist, mathematician, thinking, organizing, and understanding news reporter Artistic: Prefers ambiguous and Imaginative, disorderly, idealistic, emotional, Painter, musician, writer, interior unsystematic activities that allow impractical decorator creative expression Social: Prefers activities that involve Sociable, friendly, cooperative, understanding Social worker, teacher, counselor, helping and developing others clinical psychologist Enterprising: Prefers verbal activities Self-confident, ambitious, energetic, Lawyer, real estate agent, public in which there are opportunities to domineering relations specialist, small business influence others and attain power manager Conventional: Prefers rule-regulated, Conforming, efficient, practical, unimaginative, Accountant, corporate manager, bank orderly, and unambiguous activities inflexible teller, file clerk M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 171 13/12/22 2:39 AM  172 PART 2 The Individual Person–Organization Fit We have noted that researchers have looked at matching people to organizations and jobs. If an organization has a dynamic and changing environment and needs employees able to change tasks readily and move easily between teams, it is more important that employees’ personalities and individual differences fit with the overall organization’s culture than with the characteristics of any specific job. person–organization fit A theory that Person–organization fit essentially means that people are attracted to and people are attracted to and selected by are selected by organizations that match their values (discussed later in this organizations that match their values and chapter) and they leave organizations that are not compatible with them.9 leave when there is no compatibility. For instance, we could expect that extroverts fit well with organizations that value relationships and socialization.10 Following these guidelines when hiring should yield employees who fit better with the organization, which should, in turn, result in higher employee satisfaction and reduced turnover.11 Research on person–organization fit also looked at whether people’s values match the organization’s culture (see the chapter on organizational culture and change). A match predicts high job satisfaction and commitment to the organization as well as low turnover.12 Interestingly, new research suggests that people tend to care more about how well an organization’s values would be preferred by the typical person rather than one’s own idiosyncratic preferences for values in an organization.13 Furthermore, their fit perceptions do not involve comparing themselves to others or logically basing their opinions on how jobs make them feel. Rather, they are relatively automatic judgments that involve both affective reactions and feelings (e.g., attitudes).14 It is more important than ever for organizations to manage their image online because job seekers view company websites and social media presence as part of their pre-application process.15 Applicants want to see a user-friendly website or social media page that provides information about company policies, philosophies, and corporate social responsibility (CSR) efforts.16 These websites are so important to the development of perceived person–organization fit that improvements to their style (usability) and substance (policies) can lead to more applicants.17 Furthermore, one study examined organizations’ or founders’ communication on social media and, more specifically, whether they displayed religious values. Applicants who shared the same religious values as the founder or organization were more likely to apply to the job, although most applicants were less likely to apply to the job if the company messaged about its religious values.18 This study conveys how values communicated via social media can also affect applicant and employee fit perceptions. Other Dimensions of Fit Although person–job fit and person–organization fit are considered the most salient dimensions for workplace outcomes, other avenues of fit are worth exam- ining. These include person–group fit and person–supervisor fit.20 Person–group fit is important in team settings, where the dynamics of team interactions sig- nificantly affect work outcomes. Person–supervisor fit has become an important area of research because poor fit in this dimension can lead to lower job satisfac- tion and reduced performance. There is even some truth to the phrase “misery loves company,” as some research suggests that congruence between leader and follower cynicism predicts follower job performance.21 All dimensions of fit are sometimes broadly referred to as person– environment fit. Each dimension can predict work attitudes, which are par- tially based on culture. A meta-analysis of person–environment fit in East Asia, Europe, and North America suggested that the dimensions of person– organization and person–job fit are the strongest predictors of positive work M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 172 13/12/22 2:39 AM  Personality and Individual Differences CHAPTER 5 173 Toward a Better World Uber: In the Median or Back on the Road Again? When you think about CSR and sustain- Years after his appointment, changing values on paper is not enough. ability, you probably do not think about Khosrowshahi led an effort to replace As Fred Perrotta (CEO of Tortuga) com- Uber. Instead, you probably think of the Uber’s fourteen corporate values in mented, “Your values are what you live, appalling press it has received over the 2017. The U.S. attorney general and not what you write.” Values in many ways years, which prompted the #deleteuber his law firm recommended this action underlie organizational behavior, leading tag circulating on social media. Uber has following an investigation of Uber’s people within organizations to attract, been burdened with so many scandals internal practices. Many believed that select, and retain people who fit with that researchers and reporters created the original values encouraged, rein- those values. Therefore, Uber needs to timelines, overviews, and even a website forced, and justified unethical behavior put into practice what it writes on paper. to document them. Many have looked to at all organizational levels. These values Although Uber has made steps in Uber’s founder and former CEO, Travis included vague platitudes like “super- the right direction, image is everything. Kalanick, as the potential wellspring for pumpedness,” “always be hustling,” The data shows that Uber is still strug- these scandals. Kalanick established a “toe-stepping,” and “champion’s mind- gling with its reputation and image. toxic, win-at-all-costs, “tech bro” work- set” that seemed to encourage conflict Brand sentiment is still low, and it is place. In 2017 he was forced to step and unethical behavior. Khosrowshahi still struggling to win back custom- down as CEO following several scan- noted that Uber’s culture needed ers. However, there are some wins to dals, and at the end of 2019 Kalanick to change from one that embraces be found. For instance, Uber’s current stepped down from the board. growth, no matter the cost, toward one value of diversity and inclusion may Enter Dara Khosrowshahi. The cur- that embraces responsible and sus- have led the company toward its perfect rent CEO of Uber has had his work tainable growth. To accomplish this, score on the 2020 Corporate Equality cut out for him. He made it clear that Khosrowshahi elicited submissions of Index. Furthermore, Uber has made Kalanick would not be involved in the replacement values from more than a efforts to establish and continuously day-to-day running of Uber. He stressed thousand employees, which were voted improve CSR initiatives. Its competi- that he would work to clean up the on more than twenty thousand times tion, Lyft, continues to outshine Uber company’s image and transform the by employees at the company. He also in its CSR-related communication and culture under his leadership. Even commissioned twenty workgroups to messaging, which is incredibly impor- the circumstances surrounding the help define and refine them. The new tant for reinforcing the values to con- appointment of a new CEO were scan- values are direct and leave little room sumers. It is unclear whether Uber will dalous. Khosrowshahi was not origi- for interpretation, including: “We do the regain traction or yet again spin out. nally a front-runner in the hiring pro- right thing. Period.” “We celebrate dif- However, Uber’s case makes it abun- cess. In fact, one firm promised to drop ferences... ensure people of diverse dantly clear that leadership and values a lawsuit against Uber if it appointed backgrounds feel welcome.” “We value play a vital role in CSR. Employees an alternative, favored front-runner as ideas over hierarchy.” This approach need to be actively engaged to realize CEO (which many on the board saw as was interesting because it started with CSR goals fully. Employees and manag- blackmail). This action caused support the people. Often, when CEOs assume ers alike need to recognize that core for this front-runner candidate to switch power, they set the values themselves values become a part of the company’s to Khosrowshahi, ultimately leading and transmit them from the top down. DNA and the DNA of the people who him to become CEO. However, critics have suggested that comprise the company.19 attitudes and performance in North America. These dimensions are impor- tant to a lesser degree in Europe, and they are the least important in East Asia.22 Organizational leaders’ can manage employees’ perceptions of fit, even for jobs that many people do not want (e.g., dirty work), by match- ing employee individual differences to the job, providing realistic pre- views of the work and organization, training and socialization to help new employees navigate the job/organization, and providing ongoing support to employees.23 M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 173 13/12/22 2:39 AM  174 PART 2 The Individual Person–organization fit is important to Sheila Marcelo, founder and CEO of Care.com, an online sitter and care service. Marcelo seeks to hire employees who share the company’s culture of helping others and who are passionate about working on projects that achieve Care.com’s mission of improving the lives of families and caregivers. Source: Kelvin Ma/Bloomberg/Getty Images Personality 5-2 Describe personality, the way it is measured, and the The needs of a business are broad and varied. People are needed to keep track of accounting and finance, to ensure that the right employees are hired and factors that shape it. that training needs are met, to market and sell the products or services the company provides, to research and develop better ways of doing things, and so on. Consider this: If every employee you hired was the same and had identi- cal personalities, would they all be equally effective at meeting these needs?24 Before we can answer this question, we need to address a more basic one: What is personality? What Is Personality? When we speak of someone’s personality, we use many adjectives to describe how they act and seem to think; in one study, participants used 624 distinct adjectives to describe people they knew.25 Thinking of one of your coworkers, you might think they are “fun,” “outgoing,” “nice,” or “hard-working,” or maybe you think they are “lazy,” “aloof,” “close-minded,” or “nosy.” In organizational behavior (OB), we organize these characteristics into overall traits describing a person’s personality. personality The total number of ways in Defining Personality For our purposes, think of personality as the sum of ways which an individual reacts to and interacts in which an individual reacts to and interacts with the world around them. with the world around them. We most often describe personality in terms of the measurable traits a person exhibits. Early work on personality tried to identify and label all the enduring char- acteristics, such as the adjectives you listed previously to describe a coworker, that describe an individual’s behavior. When someone frequently exhibits these characteristics across many situations and when they are relatively enduring personality traits Enduring characteristics over time, we call them personality traits.26 The more consistent the character- that describe an individual’s behavior. istic over time and the more frequently it occurs in various situations, the more important the trait is in describing the individual. M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 174 13/12/22 2:39 AM  Personality and Individual Differences CHAPTER 5 175 Our culture influences the way we describe ourselves and others. Although many personality traits do tend to emerge across cultures (see the Big Five Model later in this chapter), 27 it appears that some traits do not emerge in cer- tain cultures—moreover, certain unique personality traits might emerge.28 For instance, research in Chinese contexts has uncovered unique traits that focus on interpersonal relatedness as well as a relative absence of openness traits.29 As such, when interacting with people from other cultures, it is imperative to keep in mind that there may be cultural differences even when it comes to personalities. Measuring Personality Personality assessments have been increasingly used in diverse organizational settings. In fact, 89 of the Fortune 100 companies and 57 percent of all large U.S. companies use them,30 including Xerox, McDonald’s, and Lowe’s.31 In addition, an estimated 200 federal agencies pay for personality testing as part of their training programs.32 Personality tests are useful in hiring decisions and help managers forecast who is best for a job.33 Furthermore, you might think that personality tests are really only used to hire middle managers and executives. However, more and more organizations are beginning to use personality tests to hire both full-time and hourly employees (see OB Poll).34 The most common means of measuring personality is through self-report surveys in which individuals evaluate themselves on a series of factors, such as “I worry a lot about the future.” 35 In general, when people know their per- sonality scores are going to be used for hiring decisions, they rate themselves much higher on desirable traits (e.g., conscientiousness) than if they are taking the test to learn more about themselves.36 This presents a problem of appli- cants and candidates “faking” their responses to the personality test, although there are ways to design personality tests to lower the chances this will happen.37 Another problem is accuracy;38 for instance, personality ratings from someone who knows you well (e.g., someone you have worked with for five years) might be more accurate than ratings given by a relative stranger to you.39 OB POLL Are Personality Assessments Only Used for High-Level Positions? Percentage of Companies Using Personality Personality Assessments and Types of Positions 35 32% 30 28% Assessments for Hiring 25 20% 20 17% 15 10 5 0 Executives Middle Managers Individual Contributors Hourly Workers Position Level Source: Based on K. Rockwood, “How Accurate Are Personality Assessments,” Society for Human Resource Management, November 21, 2019, https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/news/hr-magazine/winter2019/pages/how-accurate-are-personality-assessments.aspx M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 175 13/12/22 2:39 AM  176 PART 2 The Individual Observer-ratings surveys provide an independent assessment of personality. Here, a coworker or another observer does the rating. Though the results of self-reports and observer-ratings surveys are strongly correlated, research sug- gests that observer-ratings surveys predict job success more than self-ratings alone.40 However, each can tell us something unique about an individual’s behavior, so a combination of self-reports and observer reports predicts per- formance better than any one type of information. What makes for a good observer? Emotional intelligence (see the chapter on emotions and mood) may play a role here: One study found that accuracy in judging negative versus positive emotional displays played a role in how accurately observers judged emotional stability versus extroversion, respectively.41 Modern advancements in technology and artificial intelligence (AI) (e.g., machine learning; see introductory chapter) have also improved the ability to score personality tests, reduce faking, and adaptively present items for more accurate personality assessment. For example, machine learning has been used to select the most informative questions for traditional personality tests,42 detecting people who fake personality tests,43 measuring personality through the actual language and words people use on social media,44 and even scoring job applicants’ personal essays!45 Personality Frameworks 5-3 Describe the strengths and weaknesses of the Myers- Throughout history, people have sought to understand what makes individuals behave in different ways. Many of our behaviors stem from our personalities, Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) so understanding the components of personality helps us predict behavior. For personality framework, the example, an employee who is low on tact as a personality trait (a characteristic of Big Five Model, and the “agreeableness”) may be more likely to be rude or direct at inappropriate times, Dark Triad. which can in turn upset or anger coworkers.46 Theoretical frameworks and assessment tools help us categorize and study these dimensions of personality. The most widely used and best-known personality frameworks are the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and the Big Five Model. Both describe a person’s total personality through exploration of the facets of personality. However, the Myers-Briggs has little empirical support for its use, whereas the Big Five is built on a solid foundation of decades of research. (Clearly, evidence- based practitioners and managers would do well to consider the Big Five over the MBTI.) Other frameworks, such as the Dark Triad, explain certain aspects, but not the total, of an individual’s personality. We discuss each in the following sections, but let’s begin with the dominant frameworks. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is the most widely used personality personality test that taps four characteristics assessment instrument in the world.47 It is a one-hundred-question personality and classifies people into one of sixteen test that asks people how they usually feel or act in situations. Respondents are personality types. classified as extroverted or introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feeling (T or F), and judging or perceiving (J or P): Extroverted (E) versus Introverted (I). Extroverted individuals are outgoing, sociable, and assertive. Introverts are quiet and shy. Sensing (S) versus Intuitive (N). Sensing types are practical and prefer rou- tine and order, and they focus on details. Intuitives rely on unconscious processes and look at the big picture. Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F). Thinking types use reason and logic to han- dle problems. Feeling types rely on their personal values and emotions. Judging (J) versus Perceiving (P). Judging types want control and prefer order and structure. Perceiving types are flexible and spontaneous. M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 176 13/12/22 2:39 AM  Personality and Individual Differences CHAPTER 5 177 The MBTI describes personality types by identifying one trait (e.g., extrover- sion) from each of the four pairs (e.g., extroversion-introversion) and combining them to form a personality type. For example, Introverted/Intuitive/Thinking/ Judging people (INTJs) are visionaries with original minds and great drive. They are skeptical, critical, independent, determined, and often stubborn. There are a litany of problems with the use of the MBTI.48 First, the MBTI was developed in a rather unscientific, subjective way based on Carl Jung’s neo-Freudian theories. Although popular and historically influential, very little empirical evidence and research actually support the theory the MBTI is based on. As Professor Ronald Riggio notes, “Jung’s theories are not considered to be solid. He wasn’t an empiricist. He didn’t collect data.”49 Second, evidence does not support the validity of the MBTI as a measure of personality; in fact, most of the evidence is against it.50 As Professor Dan Ariely sardonically noted about MBTI results, “Next time, just look at the horoscope. It is just as valid and takes less time.”51 Third, the MBTI forces a person into one type or another; that is, you are either introverted or extroverted. There is no in-between. Fourth, when peo- ple retake the assessment, they often receive different results. An additional prob- lem is in the difficulty of interpretation. There are levels of importance for each of the MBTI facets, and there are separate meanings for certain combinations of facets, all of which require trained interpretation that can leave room for error. If the MBTI is such a terrible personality measure, why do so many people still use it? In Professor Merve Emre’s book on the history of the MBTI, Emre suggests the test is written to be so nonjudgmental that no matter what you select, the results are desirable and appealing. The test also satisfies a desire to know more about yourself in a simple, easy way. As such, the MBTI crafts a very “appealing fantasy” of a coherent understanding of “who you are” and how to maximize your potential using this knowledge.52 As a final issue with the MBTI that directly concerns the study of OB, the MBTI does not predict job performance or other important organizational outcomes. Because results tend to be unrelated to job performance, managers should consider using the Big Five Personality Model, discussed next, as the personality selection test for job candidates instead. The Big Five Personality Model The MBTI may lack strong supporting evidence, but an impressive body of research supports the Big Five Model, which proposes that five basic dimen- Big Five Model A personality model that sions encompass most of the differences in human personality.53 Test scores proposes five basic dimensions encompass most of the differences in human personality. of these traits do a very good job of predicting how people behave in a variety of real-life situations54 and remain relatively stable for an individual over time, with some daily variations.55 These are the Big Five factors: Conscientiousness. The conscientiousness dimension is a measure of per- conscientiousness A personality sonal consistency and reliability. A highly conscientious person is respon- dimension that describes someone who is sible, organized, dependable, and persistent. Those who score low on this responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized. dimension are easily distracted, disorganized, and unreliable. Emotional stability. The emotional stability dimension taps a person’s abil- emotional stability A personality ity to withstand stress. People with emotional stability tend to be calm, dimension that characterizes someone as self-confident, and secure. High scorers are more likely to be positive and calm, self-confident, and secure (positive) versus nervous, anxious, and insecure optimistic and experience fewer negative emotions (e.g., nervousness, (negative). anxiety, insecurity); they are generally happier than low scorers. Extroversion. The extroversion dimension captures our relational ap- extroversion A personality dimension proach toward the social world. Extroverts tend to be gregarious, assertive, describing someone who is sociable, and sociable. They experience more positive emotions than do introverts, gregarious, and assertive. and they more freely express these feelings. On the other hand, introverts (low extroversion) tend to be more thoughtful, reserved, timid, and quiet. M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 177 13/12/22 2:39 AM  178 PART 2 The Individual openness to experience A personality Openness to experience. The openness to experience dimension addresses dimension that characterizes someone in the range of a person’s interests and their fascination with novelty. terms of imagination, artistic sensitivity, and Open people are creative, curious, and artistically sensitive. Those at curiosity. the low end of the category are conventional and find comfort in the familiar. agreeableness A personality dimension Agreeableness. The agreeableness dimension refers to an individual’s that describes someone who is good propensity to defer to others. Agreeable people are cooperative, warm, natured, cooperative, and trusting. and trusting. You might expect agreeable people to be happier than dis- agreeable people. They are, but only slightly. When people choose or- ganizational team members, agreeable individuals are usually their first choice. In contrast, people who score low on agreeableness are cold and antagonistic. How Do the Big Five Traits Predict Behavior at Work? There are many relation- ships between the Big Five personality dimensions and job performance,56 and we are learning more about them every day. Let’s explore one trait at a time, beginning with the strongest predictor of job performance—conscientiousness. Conscientiousness at Work Researchers have stated, “Personal attributes related to conscientiousness... are important for success across many jobs, spanning across low to high levels of job complexity, training, and experi- ence.”57 Employees who score higher in conscientiousness develop higher levels of job knowledge, probably because highly conscientious people learn more (conscientiousness may be related to grade point average [GPA]),58 and these levels correspond with higher levels of job performance and orga- nizational citizenship behavior (OCB; see the introductory chapter).59 Conscientious people are also less likely to engage in counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs),60 think less about leaving their organizations, and can adapt to changing task demands and situations.61 Conscientious people also engage in less unsafe behavior and tend to have fewer accidents than those who are less conscientious.62 General Motors CEO Mary Barra is unusual in that Barra appears to score high on all the Big Five personality dimensions. This unique combination of traits perhaps guided Barra to become the first woman CEO of a major global automaker. Source: Michael Buholzer/Photoshot/Newscom M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 178 13/12/22 2:39 AM  Personality and Individual Differences CHAPTER 5 179 Exhibit 5-2 Traits That Matter Most to Business Success at Buyout Companies Most Important Less Important Persistence Strong oral communication Attention to detail Teamwork Efficiency Flexibility/adaptability Analytical skills Enthusiasm Setting high standards Listening skills Source: Based on S. N. Kaplan, M. M. Klebanov, and M. Sorensen, “Which CEO Characteristics and Abilities Matter?” The Journal of Finance 67, no. 3 (2012): 973–1007. Conscientiousness is important to overall organizational success. As Exhibit 5-2 shows, a study of the personality scores of 313 chief executive offi- cer (CEO) candidates in private equity companies (of whom 225 were hired) found conscientiousness—in the form of persistence, attention to detail, and setting high standards—was more important to success than other traits.63 Like any trait, conscientiousness has pitfalls. Extremely conscientious individ- uals can be too deliberate and perfectionistic, resulting in diminished happi- ness and performance, which includes task performance, safety performance, and OCB.64 They may also become too focused on their own work to help others in the organization.65 Finally, they are often less creative, especially artistically.66 Conscientiousness is the best overall predictor of job performance. However, the other Big Five traits are also related to aspects of performance and have other implications for work and for life, as Exhibit 5-3 summarizes. Emotional Stability at Work Of the Big Five traits, emotional stability is most strongly related to life satisfaction and job satisfaction as well as reduced burnout and intentions to quit.67 People with high emotional stability can adapt to unex- pected or changing demands in the workplace.68 At the other end of the spec- trum, individuals with low emotional stability, who may be unable to cope with these demands, may experience burnout.69 These people also tend to experience work–family conflict and ostracism, which can affect work outcomes.70 Given these straining effects, employees low on emotional stability are more likely to engage in CWBs, less likely to engage in OCBs, and less likely to be motivated at work.71 Extroversion at Work People with extroverted personality traits experience a small, persistent advantage in their jobs and in their careers. A review of a whopping 97 published meta-analyses strongly supports the “extrovert advantage,” which is pri- marily due to the positive emotions that extroverts tend to experience (and not primarily due to their adeptness in social interaction, like one might assume).72 Extroverts tend to be able to better adapt to career changes (e.g., finding a job after a termination).73 Furthermore, extroverts experience generally high job satisfac- tion and reduced burnout.74 At the group and team level, extroversion is a relatively strong predictor of leadership emergence and behaviors in groups.75 However, extroverts can appear to be dominating and are prone to risk-taking, which can be disadvantageous for jobs that do not require frequent social interaction.76 Openness at Work Open people tend to be creative and innovative77 and are more likely to be effective leaders and more comfortable with ambiguity—they M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 179 13/12/22 2:39 AM  180 PART 2 The Individual Exhibit 5-3 Model of How Big Five Traits Influence OB Criteria BIG FIVE TRAITS WHY IS IT RELEVANT? WHAT DOES IT AFFECT? Less negative thinking and Higher job and life satisfaction Emotional stability fewer negative emotions Lower stress levels Less hypervigilant More adaptable to change Better interpersonal skills Higher performance Extroversion Greater social dominance Enhanced leadership More emotionally expressive Higher job and life satisfaction Increased learning Enhanced Training Openness More creative Performance More flexible and autonomous Enhanced leadership Better liked Higher performance Agreeableness More compliant and Lower levels of deviant conforming behavior Greater effort and persistence Higher performance Conscientiousness More drive and discipline Enhanced leadership Better organized and planning Greater longevity cope better with organizational change and are more adaptable.78 While open- ness is not related to initial performance on a job, individuals higher in open- ness are less susceptible to a decline in performance over a longer time period.79 Open people also experience less work–family conflict.80 Agreeableness at Work Agreeable individuals tend to do better in interperson- ally oriented jobs such as customer service. They experience less work–family conflict and are less susceptible to turnover.81 They also engage in a high degree of OCBs82 and a low degree of CWBs83 and are less likely to be ostracized by their work groups.84 Lastly, agreeableness is associated with lower levels of career success (especially earnings), perhaps because highly agreeable people are less willing to assert themselves.85 Interestingly, agreeableness might be more important for organizational commitment (see the chapter on attitudes and job satisfaction) in some cul- tures. One review of research on nearly twenty thousand employees worldwide found that agreeableness was more predictive of organizational commitment in collectivistic cultures rather than individualistic cultures (see later in this chap- ter for more information on collectivistic versus individualistic cultures).86 Furthermore, given that more companies are sending their employees on global assignments, it is important to understand which other personality traits are most important for adjusting to living in different cultures. Research suggests that extroversion is the most important trait predicting expatriate adjustment, followed by emotional stability and openness.87 A study on 2,500 international exchange students worldwide corroborated this, with extroversion M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 180 13/12/22 2:39 AM  Personality and Individual Differences CHAPTER 5 181 significantly reducing the stress of being in a new culture and improving cul- tural adaptation.88 Research indicates that the Big Five traits have the most verifiable links to important organizational outcomes, but they are not the only traits a person exhibits, nor are they the only ones with OB implications. Let us discuss some other traits, known collectively as the Dark Triad. The Dark Triad Outside the Big Five framework, researchers have identified three other socially undesirable traits, which we all have in varying degrees: Machiavellianism, narcis- sism, and psychopathy. Owing to their negative nature, researchers have labeled these the Dark Triad—though they do not always occur together.89 In reviewing Dark Triad A constellation of these traits, you might remember coworkers or bosses you have had previously negative personality traits consisting who could be characterized by these traits and the consequences these traits of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy. had in your workplace. These traits can literally harm an organization’s financial performance. For example, one study of 101 hedge fund managers found that those who were narcissistic and psychopathic tended to have worse financial performance than their peers.90 These traits might not be as far removed as you think; after all, “not all psychopaths are in prison—some are in the board room.”91 The Dark Triad may sound sinister, but these traits are not clinical patholo- gies. They might be expressed particularly strongly when an individual is under stress and unable to moderate any inappropriate responses. Although dark per- sonality traits can have their upsides in certain situations (at least in the short term),92 sustained high levels of dark personality traits can cause individuals to derail their careers and personal lives.93 Machiavellianism Aiden is a young bank manager in Shanghai. Aiden has received three promotions in the past four years and makes no apologies for using aggressive tactics. “I do whatever I have to do to get ahead,” Aiden says. Aiden would be termed Machiavellian. The personality characteristic of Machiavellianism (often abbreviated Mach) Machiavellianism The degree to which an is named after Niccolò Machiavelli, who wrote in the sixteenth century about individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional how to gain and use power. An individual high in Machiavellianism is prag- distance, and believes that ends can justify means. matic, maintains emotional distance, and believes ends can justify means. “If it works, use it” is consistent with a high-Mach perspective. High Machs manip- ulate more, win more, and are persuaded less by others but persuade others more than do low Machs.94 They are more likely to act aggressively and engage in CWBs and, perhaps less obviously, will even engage in OCBs if it is instrumen- tal in acquiring more power or status.95 Surprisingly, Machiavellianism does not positively predict overall job performance.96 High-Mach employees, by manipu- lating others to their advantage, win in the short term at a job, but they lose those gains in the long term because they are not well liked. There are ethical implications for Machiavellians’ behavior. High-Mach job seekers were less positively affected by the knowledge that an organization engaged in a high level of CSR,97 suggesting that high-Mach people may care less about sustainability issues. Machs’ ethical leadership behaviors are also less likely to translate into followers’ work engagement because followers see through these behaviors and realize that they are a case of surface acting (see the chapter on emotions and moods).98 Narcissism Avery likes to be the center of attention. Avery thinks of Avery as having a very large number of talents (“See, even ‘a very’ can be found in my name!” Avery says) and having a grandiose and profound influence on others M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 181 13/12/22 2:39 AM  182 PART 2 The Individual and is very sensitive to criticism. Avery is a narcissist. The trait is named for the Greek myth about Narcissus, a youth so vain and proud he fell in love with narcissism The tendency to be arrogant, his own image. Narcissism describes a person who has a grandiose sense of have a grandiose sense of self-importance, self-importance, requires excessive admiration, and is arrogant. Narcissists often require excessive admiration, and possess a have fantasies of grand success, a tendency to exploit situations and people, a sense of entitlement. sense of entitlement, and a lack of empathy.99 However, narcissists can also be hypersensitive and fragile.100 While narcissism seems to be relatively unrelated to job effectiveness or OCB (except when it makes them look good),101 it is one of the largest predictors of increased CWB in individualistic cultures—but not in collectivist cultures that discourage self-promotion.102 Narcissists commonly think they are overqualified for their positions.103 When they receive feedback about their performance, they often tune out information that conflicts with their positive self-perception, but they will work harder if rewards are offered.104 Narcissist managers are even selective about the relationships they form with their subordinates, often pri- oritizing those who give positive, noncritical feedback (ultimately reducing the voice of all subordinates).105 Research using data compiled over one hundred years has shown that narcissistic CEOs of baseball organizations generate higher levels of manager turnover, although members of external organizations see them as more influential.106 On the bright side, narcissists may be more charismatic than others.107 They are more likely to be chosen for leadership positions, and medium ratings of narcissism (neither extremely high nor extremely low) are positively correlated with leadership effectiveness.108 Some evidence suggests that narcissists are more adaptable and make better business decisions than others when the issue is complex.109 Narcissism and its effects are not confined to CEOs or celebrities. Like the effects of Machiavellianism, those of narcissism vary by context but are evident in all areas of life. Psychopathy Psychopathy is part of the Dark Triad, but in OB, it does not con- psychopathy The tendency for a lack of note clinical mental illness. In the OB context, psychopathy is defined as a lack concern for others and a lack of guilt or of concern for others and a lack of guilt or remorse when actions cause harm.110 remorse when actions cause harm. Measures of psychopathy attempt to assess the motivation to comply with social norms; impulsivity; willingness to use deceit to obtain desired ends; and disre- gard, that is, lack of empathic concern for others. Research is not consistent about whether psychopathy is important to work behavior. One review found little correlation between measures of psychopathy and job performance or CWBs.111 Another found that antisocial personality, which is closely related to psychopathy, was positively related to advancement in the organization but unrelated to other aspects of career success and effective- ness.112 Still other research suggests psychopathy is related to the use of hard influence tactics (threats, manipulation), bullying work behavior (physical or verbal threatening), and inappropriate interpersonal behavior during meetings and suggests that such employees do not feel remorseful for their actions.113 The cunning displayed by people who score high on psychopathy may thus help them gain power in an organization but keep them from using it toward healthy ends for themselves or their organizations. Other Frameworks The Dark Triad is a helpful framework for studying the three dominant dark-side traits in current personality research, and researchers are exploring other traits as well. For instance, the DiSC framework is a circumplex model (similar to the M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 182 13/12/22 2:39 AM  Personality and Individual Differences CHAPTER 5 183 An Ethical Choice Do Certain Personality Traits Make You More Unethical? I f one were to ask people if they are ethical behavior. These individual differ- shame, and guilt can drive people to ethical, most would say yes. Indeed, ences comprise what researchers have engage in (un)ethical behavior, whereas evidence suggests that most people, described as “the moral self.” The more callous, nonemotional responses universally and globally, believe in a “true concept of the moral self is not a new may cause people to disregard the ethi- self” that is morally “good” and “just.” one—scholars and philosophers have cal aspects of situations. Despite this ubiquitous belief, research been pondering this question for mil- Do certain personality traits make reveals that, in many ways, people’s (un) lennia. For instance, Aristotle proposed people more (un)ethical? In short, ethical behavior can be attributed to dif- that the moral self is a holistic under- yes—certain personality traits can ferences in personality traits. standing of the self that is grounded make people more prone to engaging These personality traits can be in character and virtue. In many ways, in (un)ethical behaviors. But people do more typical ones that come to mind, character and virtue are related to the not exist in a vacuum—the strength of such as the facets of the Big Five. For values that people espouse and put the situation and the surrounding con- instance, prior research has demon- into practice, another individual differ- text matter to an incredible degree. strated that people low on emotional ence discussed within this chapter on Moreover, this does not mean that stability, agreeableness, and consci- personality and individual differences. one’s personality forces one to behave entiousness are much more prone to Modern researchers view the moral in a given way—just that some people engage in unethical behaviors, regard- self as the degree to which morality and may need to work harder to counteract less of whether they are directed toward ethicality are important to a person, their tendencies than others. So what other individuals or the organization. comprise a central aspect of their iden- can one do to come to terms with one’s Some may think of other frameworks tity, and motivate them to behave ethi- ethical dispositions and tendencies? as well, including the Dark Triad and cally. These ideas make logical sense— Research suggests that self-awareness honesty traits, which clearly have link- if morality were important to someone, and self-monitoring are key. Those with ages to (un)ethical behavior. (People would they be more likely to think confusing or conflicting moral stan- who tend to exhibit traits associated through ethical situations and behave dards, poor impulse control, and a lack with dishonesty, Machiavellianism, nar- in an ethical way? The answer is most of a drive to self-monitor may be more cissism, and psychoticism are probably likely yes. Another way in which people likely to experience ethical lapses. On more likely to do unethical things.) differ in the moral self is in moral emo- the other hand, when people establish But beyond examining personal- tions (as discussed in the chapter on clear and viable standards, self- ity traits across contexts, people also emotions and mood). Some people are monitoring skills, and a drive to change, have relatively stable aspects of them- more prone to experiencing moral emo- they may be more likely to counteract selves that lead to differences in (un) tions; emotions like anger, contempt, their unethical impulses.114 affective circumplex; see the chapter on emotions and mood),115 which suggests that personality characteristics can be represented on a circle with more similar traits in closer proximity, whereas more dissimilar traits are positioned farther apart. Similar to the MBTI,116 people cluster into personality “types” based on their primary characteristic:117 dominating (D), influencing (i), steadiness (S), and conscientiousness (C), although the framework recognizes that “people are not their types.” Despite the DiSC publishers’ claims of validity and reliabil- ity evidence118 and its mounting popularity as an alternative to the MBTI, few academic research studies have scientifically examined the validity of the DiSC personality framework. More research and evidence are needed on the DiSC. One emerging framework incorporates an additional trait into the Big Five framework. The HEXACO model is composed of a new trait, honesty-humility (H), and emotionality (E; i.e., emotional stability), extroversion (X), agree- ableness (A), conscientiousness (C), and openness to experience (O).119 The M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 183 13/12/22 2:39 AM  184 PART 2 The Individual addition of the H dimension came from cross-cultural studies that suggest that the English-centric early investigations that produced the Big Five essen- tially “missed” a dimension that began to emerge with studies conducted in non-European cultures (e.g., Korean, Hungarian, etc.).120 The H dimension corresponds to people who are sincere, fair, modest, and humble. These indi- viduals are not interested in social status, wealth, or money. Some research suggests that the addition of honesty-humility meaningfully adds to the Big Five, and the honesty-humility dimension has been found to predict ethically relevant outcomes, like abstaining from cheating (even in the presence of temp- tations or prompts to cheat).121 This additional dimension has implications for OB, considering that dishonesty and cheating are extremely important for orga- nizations (e.g., employees may cut corners, steal from the organization, etc.).122 Personality traits have both positive and negative aspects. The degree of each trait—those in the Big Five, the Dark Triad, and others—in a person and the combination of traits matter a great deal to organizational outcomes. It would be easy to make quick management decisions based on our observations, but it is important to keep discussions on personality in perspective and to consider other theories. Other Personality Attributes Relevant to OB 5-4 Discuss how the concepts of core self-evaluation As we have discussed, studies of traits have much to offer to the field of OB. Now we will look at other attributes that are powerful predictors of behavior in (CSE), self-monitoring, organizations: core self-evaluations, self-monitoring, and proactive personality. and proactive personality contribute Core Self-Evaluations (CSEs) to the understanding of personality. Core self-evaluations (CSEs) are bottom-line conclusions individuals have about their capabilities, competence, and worth as a person. People who have positive core self-evaluation (CSE) Bottom-line CSEs like themselves and see themselves as effective and in control of their envi- conclusions individuals have about their ronment. Those with negative CSEs tend to dislike themselves, question their capabilities, competence, and worth as a capabilities, and view themselves as powerless over their environment.123 As we person. discussed in the chapter on job attitudes, CSEs relate to job satisfaction because people who are positive on this trait see more challenge in their jobs and attain more complex jobs. People with positive CSEs perform better than others because they set more ambitious goals, are more committed to their goals, and persist longer in attempting to reach them.124 People who have high CSEs provide better cus- tomer service, are more popular coworkers, come up with creative solutions to problems, and may have careers that begin on a better footing and ascend more rapidly over time.125 However, high CSEs can have their downsides—for instance, coworkers and supervisors may view those with excessively high CSEs unfavorably, especially if the individual appears to abstain from helping others in the workplace.126 CSE also has implications for diversity and employee effectiveness in differ- ent cultural contexts. Research also suggests that employees with positive CSEs tend to more effectively adapt to changes in their careers127 and to international environments when working in new cultures.128 As some examples, one study in a Chinese vehicle manufacturing plant found that CSEs were more positively related to job performance when individualism, rather than collectivism, was valued.129 Furthermore, although one’s language proficiency and nationality set employees in multinational teams apart as “different” from the rest of the group, their CSEs compensated for these differentiating factors, and they were able to become better leaders in their teams.130 M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 184 13/12/22 2:39 AM  Personality and Individual Differences CHAPTER 5 185 Blake Mycoskie, founder of TOMS Shoes, is confident, capable, and effective. These high core self- evaluations enabled Mycoskie to found a company that uses profits to give shoes to children in need. Source: Donato Sardella/WireImage/Getty Images Self-Monitoring Riley is always in trouble at work. Although Riley is competent, hardworking, and productive, Riley receives average ratings in performance reviews and seems to have made a career out of irritating the supervisors. Riley’s problem is one of political ineptness and an inability to adjust to changing situations. As Riley says, “I’m true to myself. I don’t remake myself to please others.” Riley is a low self-monitor. Self-monitoring describes an individual’s ability to adjust behavior to exter- self-monitoring A personality trait that nal, situational factors.131 High self-monitors show considerable adaptability in measures an individual’s ability to adjust adjusting their behavior to external situational factors. They are highly sensi- their behavior to external, situational factors. tive to external cues and can behave differently in varying situations, sometimes presenting striking contradictions between their public personae and their pri- vate selves.132 Low self-monitors like Riley cannot disguise themselves in that way. They tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in every situation; hence, there is high consistency between who they are and what they do. High self-monitor employees show less commitment to their organizations but receive better performance ratings and are more likely to emerge as lead- ers.133 High self-monitor managers tend to be more mobile in their careers, receive more promotions (both internal and cross-organizational), and are more likely to occupy central positions in organizations.134 However, self-monitoring can be considered a mixed blessing; despite the aforementioned positive ben- efits, self-monitors may be seen as inauthentic, self-serving, or unprincipled.135 Proactive Personality Did you ever notice that some people take the initiative to improve their current circumstances or create new ones? These are proactive personalities.136 Those proactive personality People who identify with a proactive personality identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs, compared to others who gener- and persevere until meaningful change ally react to situations.137 For instance, a proactive personality is a key trait that occurs. M05_ROBB0025_19_GE_C05.indd 185 13/12/22 2:39 AM  186 PART 2 The Individual Myth or Science? We Can Accurately Judge Individuals’ Personalities a Few Seconds After Meeting Them S urprisingly, this statement appears of individuals at the ends of the trait everybody looks calm when they are to be true. spectrum from viewing only photos. about to fall asleep! Research indicates that indi- Some traits, such as extroversion, The moderate accuracy of these viduals can accurately appraise oth- are easier to perceive than others “thin slices” (quick inferences from ers’ personalities only a few seconds upon initial acquaintance, but less short experiences) helps explain after first meeting them or sometimes obvious traits like self-esteem are also the moderate validity of employment even from a photo. This “zero acquain- often judged accurately by others. Even interviews, which we discuss in the tance” approach shows that, regard- being forced to make intuitive, quick human resources chapter. Specifically, less of the way in which people first judgments rather than deliberate evalu- research shows that interviewers make meet someone, whether in person or ations does not seem to undermine up their minds about candidates within online, their first judgments about the the accuracy of the appraisals. two minutes of first meeting them. other’s personality have some validity. Situations make a difference in While this is hardly an ideal way to In one study, for example, individuals the accuracy of the judgments for make important employment deci- were asked to introduce themselves in, some personality traits. For example, sions, the research on personality on average, 7.4 seconds. Observers’ although emotional stability is perhaps shows that these judgments do have ratings of those individuals’ extrover- the most difficult trait to detect accu- some level of validity. It is important sion were significantly correlated with rately, a recent study found emotional to keep in mind, however, that though the individuals’ self-reported extrover- stability could be judged much more we can ascertain people’s personali- sion. Other research suggests person- accurately when the situation made the ties quickly, we should keep an open alities can be surmised from online individual react nervously. This makes mind and suspend judgment. There is profiles at zero acquaintance as well. sense when you consider that some always more to people than what first One study even found that participants situations activate or draw out a trait meets the eye.138 could determine the personality traits much more readily than others. Almost translates entrepreneurs’ visions into reality.139 Proactive individuals have many desirable behaviors that organizations covet. They have higher levels of job per-