Chapter 5: Physical and Cognitive Development in Childhood PDF

Chapter 5: Physical and Cognitive Development in Childhood © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 1  Physical Development During preschool years, boys and girls slim down; trunk of the body lengthens By the end of the preschool years, most children have lo...

Chapter 5: Physical and Cognitive Development in Childhood © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited 1  Physical Development During preschool years, boys and girls slim down; trunk of the body lengthens By the end of the preschool years, most children have lost the top-heavy look Body fat shows a slow, steady decline during the preschool years Middle and late childhood involves slow, consistent growth Elementary school years, children grow an average of 5 to 7.5 cm a year until, at the age of 11, the average child is just under 1.5 m tall Muscle mass/strength increase with improved muscle tone Growth patterns vary from one individual to another 2 Physical Development The Brain Reorganization and refinement of the brain, combined with opportunities to experience a widening world, underlie children’s emerging cognitive abilities Changes in brain during early childhood enable children to plan their actions, attend to stimuli, and develop language abilities Total brain volume increases gradually during childhood Increases in cortical surface area during childhood—especially in regions of the temporal and frontal cortex 3 Physical Development The Brain The brain is reorganized and fine-tuned in a dynamic process shaped by environmental input Referred to as functional brain development In addition to changes in patterns of activation, Figure 5.1 The Prefrontal Cortex. The brain pathways myelination continues and circuitry involving the prefrontal cortex (shaded in throughout childhood purple) show significant advances in development during childhood. What cognitive processes are linked to these changes in the prefrontal cortex? 4 Physical Development The Brain Effects of Experience on Brain Development Different experiences, like music lessons, can benefit brain development Poverty and parenting quality are linked to development of the brain (ACES video - body stores trauma) During childhood, cortical surface area increases, brain regions become increasingly specialized, and the developing prefrontal cortex improves children’s executive function. 5 Nadine Harris Burke ACES 6 Physical Development Motor Development Gross Motor Skills app. 3 yr., children enjoy simple movements (e.g., hopping, jumping) for the accomplishment and pride app. 4 yr., children still enjoy same activities, but they are more adventurous middle and late childhood, children’s motor skills become smoother and more coordinated Advances in gross motor skills provide children with new learning opportunities to interact with objects, the environment, and people 7 Physical Development Motor Development Fine Motor Skills app. 3 yr., able to pick up the tiniest objects between their thumb and forefinger for some time, still clumsy app. 4 yr., fine motor coordination has improved substantially and is much more precise improved fine motor skills in middle/late childhood with increased myelination in central nervous system app. 10 - 12 yr., begin to show manipulative skills similar to the abilities of adults; girls outperform boys 8 Physical Development Motor Development Cultural Differences in Motor Development Cultural differences in motor development provide evidence that cultural policies, attitudes, and habits shape motor skills, consistent with Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory Impairments in Motor Development 5-6% of children experience developmental coordinator (DCD) Neurodevelopmental disorder; difficulty with motor skills 9 Physical Development Well-being Sleep Getting a good night’s sleep is important for children’s development Among the developmental problems associated with sleep issues in young children are being overweight or obese and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 10 Physical Development Well-being Nutrition and Exercise Young children should engage in physical activity every day Recommended that young children get an average of 15 or more minutes of physical activity per hour over a 12-hour period, or about 3 hours per day total Physical activity is linked positively to physical, socioemotional, and cognitive development (e.g., creativity and problem solving) Lack of exercise plays a key role in childhood obesity 11 Video on Play 12 Cognitive Development Preoperational stage (Piaget) - (app. 2 – 7 yr.) children represent the world with words, images, and drawings form stable concepts and begin to reason reasoning skill still not fully developed Egocentrism - inability to distinguish one’s own perspective and someone else’s Animism - belief that inanimate objects have life-like qualities, capable of action Conservation - lack awareness that altering an object or substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties 13 Cognitive Development Figure 5.4 Piaget’s Conservation Task. The beaker test is a well-known Piagetian test to determine whether a child can think operationally, that is, can mentally reverse actions and show conservation of the substance. (a) Two identical beakers, A and B, are presented to the child. Then the experimenter pours the liquid from B into C, which is taller and thinner than A or B. (b) The child is asked whether these beakers (A and C) have the same amount of liquid. The preoperational child says no. When asked to point to the beaker that has more liquid, the preoperational child points to the tall, thin beaker. Marmaduke St. John/Alamy Stock Pho 14 Cognitive Development Concrete Operational (Piaget) - (app. 7 – 11 yr.) Children can perform concrete operations Reason logically as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples Can solve conservation problems, reverse operations Seriation – ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension Transitivity – ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions Neo-Piagetians argue that Piaget’s theory needs revision Place more emphasis on how children use attention, memory, and strategies to process information 15 Cognitive Development Vygotsky’s Theory Zone of proximal development (ZPD) - task range too difficult for child to master alone; can be learned with guidance/assistance of adults or more skilled children lower limit of the ZPD - level of skill reached by the child working independently upper limit - level of additional responsibility the child can accept with the Figure 5.6 Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development has a lower limit and an upper assistance of an able instructor limit. Tasks in the zone of proximal development are too difficult for the child to perform alone. They require assistance from an linked to scaffolding adult or a more skilled child. As children experience the verbal instruction or demonstration, they organize the information in their existing mental structures so they can eventually perform the skill or task alone. © Imaginechina/Image Source 16 Cognitive Development Vygotsky’s Theory Teaching Strategies Based on Vygotsky’s Theory 1. Assess the child’s zone of proximal development 2. Use the child’s zone of proximal development in teaching 3. Use more skilled peers as teachers 4. Place instruction in a meaningful context 17 Cognitive Development Information Processing Attention the focusing of mental resources on select information Selective attention – ability to ignore task-irrelevant information Sustained attention - focused, extended engagement with object, task, or event Executive attention - involves planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances Individual differences in attention among ages, groups, and typically developing children 18 Cognitive Development Information Processing Memory - the retention of information over time 1. Working Memory mental “workbench” to manipulate and assemble information to make decisions, solve problems, comprehend written and spoken language improves due to the use of strategies, rehearsal, increased speed, and improved attention development of working memory is associated with the development of many brain regions, including medial–temporal cortex, prefrontal cortex, and white matter 19 Cognitive Development Information Processing Memory - the retention of information over time 2. Long-term Memory relatively permanent and unlimited type of memory that increases with age during middle and late childhood two types: explicit (or declarative) memory and implicit (or nondeclarative) memory children actively construct their memory 20 Cognitive Development Information Processing Knowledge and Expertise extensive knowledge about a particular content area; this knowledge influences what they notice (i.e., attention) and how they organize, represent, and interpret information (i.e., working memory) attention and working memory, in turn, affect their ability to remember, reason, and solve problems 21 Cognitive Development Information Processing Type of Memory Formed fuzzy trace theory - memory is understood best by two types of memory representations: verbatim memory trace - precise details of the information gist - refers to the central idea of the information When gist is used, fuzzy traces are built up eventually children begin to use gist more, which results in improved memory and reasoning 22 How to memorize random things 23 Cognitive Development Executive Functioning involves managing one’s thoughts to engage in goal-directed behaviour and exercise self-control Has three components: updating, inhibition, shifting Updating – manipulating information in working memory Inhibition – withholding prepotent responses and resisting distractions Shifting – reallocating attention 24 Cognitive Development Executive Functioning executive function improves during childhood and has important implications for many aspects of development advances in executive function in the preschool years are linked to math skills, language development, and school readiness parents and teachers play important roles in the development of executive function 25 Cognitive Development Vygotsky and Information Processing in the Classroom Make believe play is key Scaffolding Learning is hands on Figure 5.9 Hands-On Learning Is a Key Feature of Tools of the Mind. How does this learning environment foster cooperation and allow each child to work at their own level? Viacheslav Nikolaenko/Shutterstock 26 Cognitive Development Cognitive Development: Applications in Everyday Life Building an Autobiographical Memory developing a sense of self requires building a story of one’s life, or an autobiography, based on memory of significant events and experiences in life influenced by social relationships 27 Cognitive Development Cognitive Development: Applications in Everyday Life Children as Eyewitnesses young children can remember a great deal of information if they are given appropriate cues and prompts increasingly, young children are being allowed to testify in court, especially if they are the only witnesses to abuse or a crime several factors can influence accuracy of a child’s testimony age differences in susceptibility to suggestion individual differences in susceptibility interviewing techniques can produce distortions 28 Cognitive Development Cognitive Development: Applications in Everyday Life Thinking about the Future knowing that your future self will have different knowledge and goals than your current self is critical for planning for the future and is an ability that develops during early childhood Social Cognition Theory of Mind – an understanding that others have different mental states false belief task continues to develop throughout childhood as children master second-order beliefs 29 Cognitive Development Cognitive Development: Applications in Everyday Life Individual Differences in Social Cognition there are individual differences in the ages when children reach certain milestones in their theory of mind language development plays a prominent role in the reflective nature of theory of mind children who perform better at such executive function tasks show a better understanding of theory of mind 30 Cognitive Development Metacognition cognition about cognition or knowing about knowing helps people to perform many cognitive tasks effectively improves across childhood includes knowledge about memory strategies 31 Cognitive Development Creative Thinking ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unique solutions to problems Convergent thinking Divergent thinking important to recognize that children will show creativity in some domains more than others 32 Cognitive Development Intelligence ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiences often focus on individual differences and assessment The Binet Tests concept of mental age (MA); individual level of mental development relative to others intelligence quotient (IQ); a person’s mental age (MA) divided by their chronological age (CA) and multiplied by 100 Stanford Binet tests 33 Cognitive Development Intelligence The Binet Tests administering test to numerous people of different ages (preschool - late adulthood), different backgrounds; scores on the Stanford-Binet test approximate a normal distribution normal distribution is symmetrical; majority of the scores falling in the middle of possible range of scores and a few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range Figure 5.12 The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores The distribution of IQ scores approximates a normal curve. Most of the population falls in the middle range of scores. Notice that extremely high and extremely low scores are very rare. Slightly more than two- thirds of the scores fall between 85 and 115. Only about 1 in 50 individuals has an IQ of more than 130, and only about 1 in 50 individuals has an IQ of less than 70. 34 Cognitive Development Intelligence Weschler Scales another set of tests widely used to assess students’ intelligence at various ages subscales provide an overall IQ score, but yield several composite indexes, such as the Verbal Comprehension Index, the Working Memory Index, and the Processing Speed Index 35 Cognitive Development Intelligence Types of Intelligence Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory 1. analytical intelligence - analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast 2. creative intelligence - create, design, invent, originate and imagine 3. practical intelligence - use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice 36 Cognitive Development Intelligence Types of Intelligence Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind - eight types intelligence/“frames of mind”: Verbal - think in words, language to express meaning Mathematical - carry out mathematical operations Spatial - think three-dimensionally Bodily-kinesthetic - manipulate objects and be physically adept Musical - sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone Interpersonal - understand/interact effectively with others Intrapersonal - ability to understand oneself Naturalist - observe nature patterns; understand natural/human world 37 Cognitive Development Intelligence Evaluating the Multiple-Intelligences Approaches a number of psychologists think that the multiple-intelligences views have taken the concept of specific intelligences too far some argue that a research base to support the three intelligences of Sternberg or the eight intelligences of Gardner has not yet emerged. for example, people who excel at one type of intellectual task are likely to excel in others 38 Cognitive Development Intelligence Culture and Intelligence differing conceptions of intelligence occur not only among psychologists but also among cultures what is viewed as intelligent in one culture may not be thought of as intelligent in another 39 Cognitive Development Intelligence Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores interpretation of scores on intelligence tests is debated researchers agree that genetics and environment interact to influence intelligence worldwide increase in intelligence test scores has occurred over a short time frame; has been called the Flynn effect 40 Cognitive Development Figure 5.14 The Increase in IQ Scores from 1932 to 1997. As measured by the Stanford-Binet intelligence test, American children seem to be getting smarter. Scores of a group tested in 1932 fell along a bell- shaped curve with half below 100 and half above. Studies show that, if children took that same test today, half would score above 120 on the 1932 scale. Very few of them would score in the “intellectually deficient” end on the left side, and about one-fourth would rank in the “very superior” range. 41 Cognitive Development Intelligence Creating Culture-Fair Tests culture-fair tests of intelligence that are intended to be free of cultural bias. two types of culture-fair tests have been devised: items that are familiar to children from all socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds, or items that are at least familiar to the children taking the test no verbal questions 42 Cognitive Development Children with Disabilities Children with learning disability: are of normal intelligence or above have difficulties in at least one academic area, usually several have difficulty that is not attributable to any other diagnosed problem or disorder the global concept of learning disabilities includes problems in listening, concentrating, speaking and thinking. difficult to diagnose exact cause has not yet been determined 43 Cognitive Development Children with Disabilities Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) - consistently shows one or more of these characteristics over time: inattention hyperactivity Impulsivity No definitive cause has been found but may involve: inheritance from parents brain damage exposure to alcohol or cigarette smoke, low birth weight, high levels of maternal stress 44 Cognitive Development Children with Disabilities Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) – neurodevelopmental disorders Two core features: persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests, or activities ASDs may occur with or without accompanying intellectual or physical impairment current consensus is that autism is associated with brain dysfunction characterized by abnormalities in brain structure and neurotransmitters 45 Language Development Phonology - sound system of a language, including the sounds used and how they may be combined (p, h, ph) Morphology - units of meaning involved in word formation (e.g., children begin using the plural and possessive forms of nouns) Syntax - way words are combined to form acceptable phrases/ sentences Semantics - aspect of language that refers to the meaning of words and sentences (early childhood) Pragmatics - appropriate use of language in different contexts 46 Language Development Changes in Syntax and Semantics Six key principles in young children’s vocabulary development: 1. Children learn the words they hear most often. 2. Children learn words for things and events that interest them. 3. Children learn words best in responsive and interactive contexts. 4. Children learn words best in contexts that are meaningful. 5. Children learn words best with clear information about word meaning. 6. Children learn words best when grammar and vocabulary are considered. 47 Language Development Advances in Pragmatics around age 3, children begin to engage in extended discourse as children grow older, they become increasingly able to talk about things that are not here and not now around age 4–5, children learn to change their speech style to suit the situation school adds new skills 48 Language Development Vocabulary, Grammar and Metalinguistic Awareness middle/late childhood, changes occur in the way children’s mental vocabulary is organized categorizing becomes easier as children increase their vocabulary elementary school - improvement in logical reasoning/analytical skills helps them understand proper use of comparatives and subjunctives metalinguistic awareness - knowledge about language (e.g., knowing what a preposition is) 49 Language Development Reading whole-language approach - reading instruction should parallel children’s natural language learning phonics approach - reading instruction should teach basic rules for translating written A teacher helps a student sound out words. Researchers have found that phonics instruction is a symbols into sounds key aspect of teaching students to read, especially beginning readers and students with weak reading both approaches are beneficial skills. © Gideon Mendel/Corbis/Getty Images 50 Language Development Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning French immersion students enjoy significant linguistic, academic, and cognitive benefits immersive instruction enables students to develop high levels of proficiency in both languages Second-Language Learning multiple sensitive periods for learning a second language late language learners (adolescents, adults) may learn vocabulary more easily than new sounds or new grammar 51 Schools and Education Variations in Early Childhood Education many variations in the way young children are educated education is a provincial responsibility, and curriculums vary across Canada Child-centred kindergarten - emphasizes educating whole child; promoting physical, cognitive, socioemotional development Montessori approach - children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities; they are allowed to move from one activity to another as they desire, and the teacher acts as a facilitator rather than a director Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) - creating settings to encourage children to be active learners 52 Schools and Education Education for Young Children Who Are Disadvantaged one risk factor for school readiness is low income children from lower-income families tend to fare worse in their readiness to learn than children from middle-income families comprehensive childcare approach may be one answer 53 Schools and Education Education in Middle and Late Childhood constructivist approach - learner centred, emphasizes importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher direct instruction approach - teacher centred, characterized by teacher direction and control, high teacher expectations advocates of the constructivist approach argue that the direct instruction approach turns children into passive learners and does not adequately challenge them to think critically and creatively 54 Schools and Education Poverty and Education 22 percent of children in Canada are affected by poverty children with disabilities as well as children from families that are Indigenous, ethnic minorities, or new to Canada are at a greater risk of living in poverty many schools in rural areas, especially in Indigenous communities, are in disrepair and lack educational facilities such as gyms and libraries 55 Schools and Education Ethnicity in Schools children from immigrant or Indigenous backgrounds have the additional stress of trying to adjust to the mainstream culture and conflicting values, and learning either of Canada’s official languages immigrant and Indigenous children face additional challenges culturally appropriate education needed 56 Schools and Education Private Schools and Home Schooling many Canadian children are receiving private school education and home schooling home schooling families share many characteristics with private school families in that they are concerned about class sizes, differing values, and inadequate parental input 57 58 Summary Physical Development Individual differences in growth are influenced by genetic and environmental influences. Brain development is shaped by experience (e.g., music lessons) and context (e.g., poverty) Gross and fine motor skills improve dramatically during childhood. Many children do not meet the WHO recommendations around sleep, leading to various health problems. Exercise and play are essential for optimal physical, cognitive, and social development. 59 Summary Cognitive Development According to Piaget, childhood is characterized by two cognitive stages: preoperational and concrete operational. Vygotsky’s theory represents a social constructivist approach to development. The zone of proximal development and scaffolding are key concepts in Vygotsky’s theory. Information-processing theories focus on how attention, executive function, and memory change across childhood. Increases in knowledge and the use of strategy contribute to improved performance across childhood. There are various tests designed to measure intelligence, though researchers disagree on the extent to which multiple different intelligences should be assessed. Various special populations of students that benefit from special education. 60 Summary Language Development Toddlers gain an understanding of phonology (the sounds of their language) and morphology (the rules by which words are formed). Preschool children learn the rules of syntax (how words can be combined to make sentences) and semantics (word meaning). Children also learn about the pragmatics of language. Older children show increases in grammar, improved vocabulary, and increased metalinguistic awareness. Debate about the best strategy for teaching children to read (e.g., whole- language approach versus phonics approach) continues, but it is certain that a strong vocabulary helps children learn to read. 61 Summary Schools and Education There are various approaches to educating young children, including child- centred kindergarten and the Montessori approach. Poverty and immigration pose challenges for education, but interventions can foster success. Although most children in Canada attend public school, some attend private school or are home schooled. 62