BIO 163 Ch. 4 Study Notes PDF

**BIO 163 Ch. 4 Learning Outline** You can also use this outline to take notes in class. You can refer to your textbook for more detailed information on these topics. **[Metabolism]** 1. **Define metabolism** is the group of chemical reactions that acquire, store, and release energy in the cell...

**BIO 163 Ch. 4 Learning Outline** You can also use this outline to take notes in class. You can refer to your textbook for more detailed information on these topics. **[Metabolism]** 1. **Define metabolism** is the group of chemical reactions that acquire, store, and release energy in the cells of the body 2. **Define anabolism** the buildup of larger molecules from smaller ones, requiring energy. a. Explain dehydration synthesis and give examples removing a molecule of water to join two smaller molecules Example: When 2 monosaccharides (simple sugars) are bound together to form a disaccharide, a H (hydrogen) atom is removed from one sugar, while an O H (hydroxyl) group is removed from the other. 3. **Define catabolism** breaks apart larger molecules into smaller ones (their building blocks) a. **Explain hydrolysis and give examples** a process by which a molecule of water is split, and its parts are inserted into a larger molecule to break its chemical bonds Example: Sucrose (a disaccharide) + H2O → Glucose + Fructose (which are monosaccharides) 4. **Define enzyme and explain how an enzyme works** control the rates of all the metabolic reactions of the cell ;. Do not change as they control reactions, increase the rate of biochemical reactions by lowering the activation energy a. **Define substrate** the specific molecule or substance that an enzyme acts upon and transforms into a different product during a chemical reaction b. **Define active site** the region where a substrate molecule binds and undergoes a chemical reaction. temporarily combines with a specific part of the substrate, forming an enzyme-substrate complex. 5. **Explain a metabolic pathway.** A sequence of enzyme-controlled reactions, both for synthesis and breakdown, a series of connected chemical reactions that feed one another 6. **Define cofactor and coenzyme**. **Cofactor**: A non-protein component with which some enzymes must combine in order to be active. Coenzyme: Small organic cofactors; these are often vitamins or derived from a vitamin 7. **What is the chemical form of energy that can be used by cells?** Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) 8. **Explain the structure of ADP vs. ATP** ADP has two phosphate groups, while ATP has three **[Cellular Respiration]** 1. **What does aerobic mean? Anaerobic?** **Aerobic:** a cell uses oxygen to produce energy through a process called aerobic respiration; essentially, it refers to cellular processes that require oxygen to function properly. **Anaerobic:** a cell can function and produce energy without the presence of oxygen one molecule of glucose is broken down to yield two molecules of pyruvic acid 2. **List the three series of reactions in cellular respiration.** The reaction series consists of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain 3. For each of the three series of reactions in cellular respiration give the following information: - Location in cell where reaction occurs - Whether or not it is aerobic or anaerobic - What are the starting chemicals - What are the products **[Glycolysis:]** In cellular respiration, only two ATP are gained directly from glycolysis**[.]** **Location where reaction occurs:** cytosol **Anaerobic**: Doesn\'t require oxygen **Starting chemicals:** 6-C glucose molecule into 2 3-C molecules of pyruvic acid **Product:** Products of glycolysis of each glucose molecule are 2 pyruvic acid molecules, 2 ATP, and high-energy electrons **[Citric Acid Cycle]** **Location where reaction occurs:** Mitochondria **aerobic:** Does require oxygen **Starting chemicals:** Pyruvic acid will lose a carbon atom, and join with a coenzyme to form acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) **Product:** carbon dioxide, 2 ATP, and high-energy electrons **[Electron Transport]** **Location where reaction occurs:** Mitochondria **aerobic:** Does require oxygen **Starting chemicals:** NADH and FADH2 **Product:** water and ATP 4. **What is the total number of ATP molecules produced in the complete oxidation of 1 molecule of glucose?** 32 ATP molecules. **For each molecule of glucose that is completely broken down, a maximum of how many molecules of ATP can be produced?** 38 ATP molecules. 5. **Explain the oxygen debt.** the amount of extra oxygen the body needs to consume after intense exercise to restore normal metabolic processes, primarily by removing lactic acid built up in muscles due to anaerobic respiration when oxygen supply is limited, essentially \"repaying\" the body for the oxygen it used during strenuous activity when it couldn\'t get enough oxygen to meet energy demands; this is why breathing rate remains elevated after exercise until the debt is repaid. **[Genetic Information]** 1. **Explain the structure of DNA.** two linked strands that wind around each other to resemble a twisted ladder --- a shape known as a double helix. 2. **Name the four bases in DNA.** adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) 3. **Briefly explain DNA replication.** the process by which a cell copies its DNA molecule, creating two identical DNA strands, ensuring that each new daughter cell receives a complete set of genetic information when the original cell divides 4. **What is a triplet?** a sequence of three consecutive nucleotide bases that together code for a specific amino acid; essentially, it\'s a group of three bases read as a unit within the genetic code, also known as a codon. 5. **Explain the structure of RNA.** a single-stranded nucleic acid composed of a chain of nucleotides, each containing a ribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil) 6. **Compare and contrast DNA and RNA.** DNA is double-stranded, forming a double helix, while RNA is usually single-stranded. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, whereas RNA contains ribose. Furthermore, DNA uses the bases adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine, while RNA uses adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine. **[Transcription and Translation]** 1. **Explain Transcription.** the process where a cell creates an RNA copy of a specific DNA sequence, essentially copying the genetic information from DNA into a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule, which can then be used to synthesize proteins; this process takes place in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. 2. **Explain translation** is the assembly of an amino acid chain according to the sequence of codons in an mRNA molecule 3. **Name the three types of RNA and explain the function of each.** **mRNA (messenger RNA):** The transfer of genetic information from the nucleus into the cytoplasm Carries the genetic code from DNA to the ribosomes, providing the template for protein synthesis by specifying the sequence of amino acids. **tRNA (transfer RNA):** Transports specific amino acids to the ribosome, matching them to the corresponding codon on the mRNA, allowing for the correct amino acid sequence to be built in the growing protein chain. **rRNA (ribosomal RNA):** Forms the structural component of the ribosome, the site where protein synthesis occurs, and plays a crucial role in catalyzing the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids. 4. **What is a codon? An anticodon?** Each amino acid corresponds to a three-base sequence of DNA nucleotides; in the complementary mRNA, this sequence is called a **codon** One codon represents a "start" message (at the beginning of a gene), and three represent "stop" messages (to signal the end of a gene) In the cytoplasm, another type of RNA, transfer RNA (tRNA), has a three-base sequence of nucleotides called the **anticodon**, which is complementary to nucleotides of the messenger RNA codon Genes: carry information that instructs a cell tomake specific proteins from amino acids. The genetic code: is a sequence of nucleic acid bases that instructs cells how to make specific protein molecules. The organelle that houses the reactions of aerobic respiration is the: mitochondria The part of an ATP molecule that holds the energy used in metabolism is: the phosphate bonds. The parts of a DNA molecule that contain the genetic information for making particular proteins are the: nitrogenous bases. The reactions of anaerobic respiration occur in the: Cytosol Which of the following describes the steps in the correct order for an enzyme-catalyzed reaction? Substrate, enzyme, enzyme-substrate complex, product+enzyme molecule ATP is more abundant during cellular respiration Catalysis: is the speeding of a chemical reaction Most metabolic processes use chemical energy