Chapter 20 - Industrial Growth (1865-1914) PDF

20 CHAPTER Industrial Growth 1865-1914 1 Railroads Spur Industry 2 The Rise of Big Business 3 Inventions Change the Nation 4 T...

20 CHAPTER Industrial Growth 1865-1914 1 Railroads Spur Industry 2 The Rise of Big Business 3 Inventions Change the Nation 4 The Rise of Organized labor An explosion during a work- Congress ers' protest in Chicago's Vanderbilt towering passesthe over his railroad Haymarket Square leads to Sherman a wave of antilabor feeling. empire Cornelius Vanderbilt Antitrust Act, gains control of the which bans largest railroad empire trusts and in the United States. monopolies. James A. Garfield 1881 AMERICAN Abraham Rutherford Chester A. Grover EVENTS Lincoln Andrew Johnson Ulysses S. Grant B. Hayes Arthur Cleveland Presidential Terms: 1861-1865 1865-1869 1869-1877 1877-1881 1881-1885 1885-1889 WORLD A 1866 A mid-1880s Swedish chemist Alfred Germany provides sick- EVENTS Nobel invents dynamite. ness, accident, and old 572 * Chapter 20 age insurance.  Inside Carnegie's steelworks Henry Ford introduces The huge Carnegie the assembly line in his Steel Company pro- Orville Wright makes Highland Park, Michigan, duces more steel than the first airplane flight. automobile plant. does all of Britain. Benjamin Grover William William Harrison Cleveland McKinley Theodore Roosevelt Howard Taft * 1889-1893 1893-1897 1897-1901 1901-1909 1909-19131 Woodrow Wilson 1913-1921 1900. 1914. The Labour party is founded The Panama Canal opens, linking the in Britain. Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean. Chapter 20 * 573  ---------------- Railroads Spur Industry Reading Focus Key Terms Taking Notes What factors led to the gauge Copy the concept web below. As you construction of a network read, fill in the blank ovals with informa- of railroads after the Civil network tion about the age of railroad building War? consolidate after the Civil War. Add as many ovals as How did railroad executives you need. rebate eliminate competition? How did railroad building pool encourage the growth of the American economy? Knitting the nation together _ ain Idea A boom in railroad building encouraged ;:::;'American industry to grow but gave vast amounts of power to a few railroad owners. Setting the Scene William Vanderbilt knew how to make money. His father, Cornelius, had created a railroad empire worth millions. After the death of Cornelius, William doubled the family fortune. Cornelius had ruthlessly crushed competitors and ignored protests from the public. William followed much the same path. He kept his goal clear, telling reporters: "The railroads are not run for the benefit of the dear public. That cry is all nonsense. They are built for men who invest their money and expect to get a fair percent- age on the same." -William H.Vanderbilt (to reporters), 1882 Railroad men like the Vanderbilts might ignore the public, but no one could ignore the vast changes that railroads had brought. The ~i~~ Vanderbilt theJpublic ignores railroad was a breakthrough in transportation. For the first time, human beings could travel overland without relying on animals. Just Draw Inferences Do you think many American people of the time as important, railroads were the single most significant spur to the agreed with William Vanderbilt? amazing growth of industry in the United States. A Network of Rails The Civil War showed the importance of railroads. Railroads carried troops and supplies to the battlefields. They also moved raw materi- als to factories. After the war, railroad companies began to build new lines all over the country. Knitting the Nation Together Early railroads were short lines that served local communities. Many lines ran for no more than 50 miles. When passengers and freight reached the end of one line, they had to move to a train on a different line to continue their journey. Even if the lines had been connected, the problem would not have been eliminated. Different lines used tracks of different gauges, or widths. As a result, the trains from one line could not run on the 574 * Chapter 20 Industrial Growth tracks of another line. In general, the tracks of northern lines used different gauges from those of southern lines. In 1886, railroads in the South decided to adopt the northern gauge. On May 30, southern railroads stopped running so that work could begin. Using crowbars and sledgehammers, crews worked from dawn to dusk to move the rails a few inches farther apart. When they had finished, some 13,000 miles of track had been changed. Once the track was standardized, American railroads formed a network, or system of connected lines. The creation of a rail net- work brought benefits to shippers. Often, rail companies arranged for freight cars on one line to use the tracks of another. For example, goods loaded in Chicago could stay on the same car all the way to New York, instead of being transferred from one car to another. As a result, the shipper had to pay only one fare for the whole distance. New rails knit the sprawling nation together. By 1900, there were more miles of tracks in the United States than in Europe and Russia combined. Why Are There Time Zones? Improving Rail Travel New inventions helped make railway travel Our system of time zones is a result of the railroad boom of the safer and faster. On early trains, each railroad car had its own brakes late 1800s. At that time, many and its own brake operator. If different cars stopped at different towns kept their own time. When times, serious accidents could result. In 1869, George Westinghouse the sun was highest over the town, began selling his new air brake. Westinghouse's air brake allowed a it was noon. But 100 miles west, locomotive engineer to stop all the railroad cars at once. The air where the sun was still rising, the time was a few minutes before brake increased safety and allowed for longer, faster trains. noon.Thus, for example, there Long distance travel also became more comfortable. In 1864, were 27 local times in Illinois, 23 in George Pullman designed a railroad sleeping car. Pullman cars had Indiana, and 38 in Wisconsin. convertible berths for sleeping as well as lavatories. Rail lines also To simplify train schedules, rail- roads established their own uni- added dining cars. Porters, conductors, and waiters attended to the form time standard. On November needs of passengers. 18, 1883, all railway clocks were setto the new standard. In 1918, Consolidation Brings Efficiency As railroads grew, they looked Congress enacted the Standard for ways to operate more efficiently. Small lines were often costly to Time Act, which was based on run, so many companies began to consolidate, or combine. Larger time zones in use by railroads. companies bought up smaller ones or forced them out of business. N Why was the old The Pennsylvania Railroad, for example, consolidated 73 companies W--E system of keeping into its system. S time risky for railroad Tough-minded business people led the drive for consolidation. passengers? Cornelius Vanderbilt was among the most powerful of these lead- ers. The son of a poor farmer, Vanderbilt earned one fortune in steamship lines. He then began to buy up railroad lines in New York State. Vanderbilt sometimes used ruthless tactics to force smaller own- ers to sell to him. In the early 1860s, he decided to buy the New York Central Railroad. The owners refused to sell. Vanderbilt then announced that New York Central passengers would not be allowed to transfer to his trains. With their passengers stranded and business dropping sharply, the New York Central owners gave in and sold their line to Vanderbilt. Vanderbilt then bought up most of the lines between Chicago and Buffalo. By the time of his death in 1877, his companies controlled 4,500 miles of track and linked New York City to the Great Lakes region. Chapter 20 Section 7 * 575  Other consolidations were soon under- way. Before long, the major railroads of the United States were organized into a number of systems directed by a handful of wealthy and powerful men. Building New Lines Railroad builders raced to create thousands of miles of new tracks. In the years after completion of the first transcontinental rail line in 1869, Americans built three more. James Hill, a Canadian-born owner, finished the last major cross-country line in 1893. His Great Northern Railway wound from Duluth, Minnesota, to Everett, Washington. Unlike other rail lines, the Great Northern was built without financial aid from Congress. To make his railroad suc- ceed, Hill had to turn a profit from the start. He encouraged farmers and ranchers to move to the Northwest and settle near his railroad. He gave seed to farmers and helped them buy equipment. He imported special bulls in order to breed hardier cattle. Not only was Hill's policy generous, it also Farmers vs. Railroads made good business sense. In this 1873 cartoon, Thomas Nast portrayed the railroad as a monster Eliminating the Competition snaking through American With builders rushing to share in the profits of the railroad boom, farmland. overbuilding occurred. Soon, there were too many rail lines in some 1. Comprehension Whom parts of the country. Between Atlanta and St. Louis, for example, 20 does the figure with the different lines competed for business. There was not nearly enough club represent? rail traffic to keep all these lines busy. 2. Finding the Main Idea Rebates and Pools In the West, especially, there were too few peo- In the background, the monster has its coils ple for the railroads to make a profit. Competition was fierce. Rate wrapped around a build- wars broke out as rival railroads slashed their fares to win cus- ing. What building is it? tomers. Usually, all the companies lost money as a result. What point is Nast Often, railroads were forced to grant secret rebates, or dis- making? counts, to their biggest customers. This practice forced many small 3. Critical Thinking companies out of business. It also hurt small shippers, such as farm- Analyzing Primary ers, who still had to pay the full price. Sources What devices does Nast use to portray Railroad owners soon realized that cutthroat competition was railroads as evil and farm- hurting even their large lines. They looked for ways to end the com- ers as good? petition. One method was pooling. In a pool, several railroad com- panies agreed to divide up the business in an area. They then fixed their prices at a high level. Civics e!i]lll!l Extra Burdens for Farmers Railroad rebates and pools angered small farmers in the South and the West. Both practices kept ship- ping prices high for them. Indeed, rates were so high that at times farmers burned their crops for fuel rather than ship them to market. 576 * Chapter 20 Industrial Growth  As you have read in Chapter 19, many farmers joined the Populist party. Populists called for government regulation of rail rates. Some Populists even called for a government takeover of the railroads. Congress and several states passed laws regulating rail- road companies. However, the laws did not end abuses. Railroad owners sometimes bribed officials to keep the laws from being enforced. Railroads Fuel the Economy [Ai~~U] Find look read, MainforIdeas As you the main Although railroads caused certain problems, they also made possible ways in which the railroad "fueled" the rapid growth of industry after 1865. Building rail lines created the economy. thousands of jobs. Steelworkers turned millions of tons of iron into steel for tracks and engines. Lumberjacks cut down whole forests to supply wood for railroad ties. Miners sweated in dusty mine shafts digging coal to fuel railroad engines. The railroad companies them- selves employed thousands of workers. They laid tracks, built trestles across rivers, carved tunnels through mountains, and built countless railroad stations. The large railroads also pioneered new ways of managing busi- ness. Rail companies created special departments for shipping and accounting and for servicing equipment. Expert managers headed each department, while chains of command ensured that the organ- ization ran smoothly. Other big businesses soon copied these man- agement techniques. Railroads opened every corner of the country to settlement and growth. They brought people together, especially in the West. New businesses sprang up, and towns sprouted where rail lines crossed. With rail lines in place, the United States was ready to become the greatest industrial nation the world had ever seen. Aflti yOU - itAO Recall Critical Thinking and Writing 1. Identify Explain the signifi- 6. Exploring the Main Idea cance of (a) William Vanderbilt, Review the Main Idea state- (b) George Westinghouse, ment at the beginning of the Take It to the NET (c) Cornelius Vanderbilt. section. Then, write at least Connecting to Today 2. Define (a) gauge, (b) network, four questions that you would Use the Internet to find out (c) consolidate, (d) rebate, ask a railroad owner or a west- more about people who (e) pool. ern farmer to help decide have built large business whether the growth and con- empires in recent years. Pick Comprehension solidation of railroads were 3. How did a broad network of two or three people who good for the country. have made a difference to railroads develop in the years 7. Analyzing Information After after the Civil War? the economy. Then, write a the Civil War, railroads consoli- profile of one of them 4. What tactics did railroad dated as large railroad compa- describing his or her accom- owners use to eliminate nies took over smaller ones. plishments. Visit The competition? (a) What were the advantages American Nation section of 5. How did American industry of consolidation? (b) What www.phschool.com for help benefit from the widespread were the disadvantages? in completing the activity. railroad building? Chapter 20 Section 7 * 577  2 The Rise 01 Big Business Reading Focus Key Terms Taking Notes What factors were respon- Bessemer process Copy the concept web below. sible for the growth of Include three or four blank ovals. vertical integration huge steel empires after As you read, fill in each blank oval the Civil War? corporation with a major development associ- stock ated with the rise of big business What benefits did corpora- tions and bankers provide dividend during the late 1800s. Two ovals to the growing economy? trust have been completed to help you get started. How did John D. Rockefeller monopoly amass his huge oil holdings? free enterprise system What were the arguments Sherman Antitrust Act for and against trusts? __ Main Idea As industry boomed, American businesses grew ~and developed new ways of organizing and limiting competition. Setting the Scene In the spring of 1898, an Englishman named Charles Trevelyan visited Pittsburgh. Trevelyan found Pittsburgh to be a rough town dominated by the steel business. " A cloud of smoke hangs over it by day. The glow of scores of furnaces lights the riverbanks by night. It stands at the junction of two great rivers, the Mononga- hela which flows down today in a [slow] yellow stream, and the Allegheny which is blackish." -Charles Philips Trevelyan, Letters From North America and the Pacific, April 15, 1898 Trevelyan met some of Pittsburgh's wealthiest people. He thought they were "a good breed and shrewd and friendly." Pittsburgh was one of many cities that drew its energy from busi- ness and industry in the late 1800s. Its wealthiest citizens were a ~l~~U J Steel-mill Find Main pollution Ideas How new breed of American business leaders. They were bold, imagina- did Charles Trevelyan's attitude tive, sometimes generous, and sometimes ruthless. By the end of the toward Pittsburgh both match and 1800s, they had made their businesses big beyond imagining. differ from this picture? Growth of the Steel Industry The growth of railroads after the Civil War spurred the growth of the steel industry. Early trains ran on iron rails that wore out quickly. Railroad owners knew that steel rails were much stronger and not as likely to rust as iron. Steel, however, was costly and difficult to make. Making Steel a New Way In the 1850s, William Kelly in the United States and Henry Bessemer in England each discovered a new way to make steel. The Bessemer process, as it came to be called, enabled steel makers to produce strong steel at a lower cost. As a result, railroads began to lay steel rails. 578 * Chapter 20 Industrial Growth  Other industries also took advantage of the cheaper steel. Manufacturers made steel nails, screws, needles, and other items. Steel girders supported the great weight of the new "skyscrapers"- the new tall buildings going up in the cities. Thriving Steel Mills Steel mills sprang up in cities throughout the midwest. Pittsburgh became the steel-making capital of the nation. Nearby coal mines and good transportation helped Pittsburgh's steel mills to thrive. The boom in steel making brought jobs and prosperity to Pitts- burgh and other steel towns. It also caused problems. The yellow- colored river that Charles Trevelyan saw on his visit to Pittsburgh in 1898 was the result of years of pouring industrial waste into water- ways. Steel mills belched thick black smoke that turned the air gray. Soot blanketed houses, trees, and streets. Andrew Carnegie's Steel Empire -AnAmerican Profile Many Americans made fortunes in the steel industry. Richest of all was a Scottish immigrant, Andrew Carnegie. Carnegie's ideas about how to make money-and how to spend it-had a wide influence. Controlling the Steel Industry During a visit to Britain, Carnegie had seen the Bessemer process in action. Returning to the United States, he borrowed money and began his own steel mill. Within a short time, Carnegie was earning huge profits. He used the money to buyout rivals. He also bought iron mines, railroad and steamship lines, and warehouses. Soon, Carnegie controlled all phases of the steel industry- from mining iron ore to shipping finished steel. Gaining control of all the steps used to change raw materials into finished products is called vertical integration. Vertical integration gave Carnegie a When Andrew Carnegie was 12, his great advantage over other steel producers. By 1900, Carnegie's family left Scotland to immigrate to the United States. He first worked steel mills were turning out more steel than was produced in all of Great Britain. in a cotton factory for $1.20 a week. Then, he worked as a telegram The "Gospel of Wealth" Like other business owners, Carnegie messenger. Carnegie worked long hours during the day and studied drove his workers hard. Still, he believed that the rich had a duty to Morse code at night. help the poor and to improve society. He called this idea the "gospel Luck favored Carnegie when of wealth." Carnegie gave millions of dollars to charities. After selling Thomas Scott, superintendent of his steel empire in 1901, he spent his time and money helping people. the Pennsylvania Railroad, hired the young man as his telegrapher. Scott introduced Carnegie to other The Corporation and the Bankers industrial leaders and helped him invest his savings. Although Car- Before the railroad boom, nearly every American town had its own negie earned only a modest salary, small factories. They produced goods for people in the area. By the shrewd investment made him a mil- late 1800s, however, big factories were producing goods more cheaply lionaire. By the 1890s, he was one than small factories could. Railroads distributed these goods to of the world's richest men. nationwide markets. As demand for local goods fell, many small fac- How did Carnegie take advan- tories closed. Big factories then increased their output. tage of his good luck? Expanding factories needed capital, or money, for investment. Factory owners used the capital to buy raw materials, pay workers, and cover shipping and advertising costs. To raise capital, Americans adopted new ways of organizing their businesses. Chapter 20 Section 2 * 579  The Rise of the Corporation Many expanding businesses became corporations. A corporation is a business that is owned by investors. A corporation sells stock, or shares in the business, to investors, who are known as stockholders. The corporation can use the money invested by stockholders to build a new factory or buy new machines. In return for their investment, stockholders hope to receive dividends, or shares of a corporation's profit. To protect their invest- ment, stockholders elect a board of directors to run the corporation. Stockholders face fewer risks than owners of private businesses do. If a private business goes bankrupt, the owner must pay all the debts of the business. By law, stockholders cannot be held responsi- ble for a corporation's debts. Banks and Industry In the years after the Civil War, corporations attracted large amounts of capital from American investors. Corporations also borrowed millions of dollars from banks. These loans helped American industry grow at a rapid pace. At the same time, bankers made huge profits. The most powerful banker of the late 1800s was J. Pierpont Morgan. Morgan's influence was not limited to banking. He used his banking profits to gain control of major corporations. During economic hard times in the 1890s, Morgan and other bankers invested in the stock of troubled corporations. As large stockholders, they easily won seats on the boards of directors. They then adopted policies that reduced competition and ensured big profits. "I like a little competition, but I like combination more," Morgan used to say. Between 1894 and 1898, Morgan gained control of most of the nation's major rail lines. He then began to buy up steel companies, including Carnegie Steel, and to merge them into a single large cor- poration. By 1901, Morgan had become head of the United States Steel Company. It was the first American business worth more than $1 billion. Rockefeller's Oil Empire Industry could not have expanded so quickly in the United States without the nation's rich supply of natural resources. Iron ore was plentiful, especially in the Mesabi Range of Minnesota. Pennsyl- vania, West Virginia, and the Rocky Mountains had large deposits of coal. The Rockies also contained minerals, such as gold, silver, and copper. Vast forests provided lumber for building. In 1859,Americans discovered a valuable new resource: oil. Drillers near Titusville, Pennsylvania, made the nation's first oil strike. An oil boom quickly followed. Hundreds of prospectors rushed to western Pennsylvania ready to drill wells in search of oil. Rockefeller and Standard Oil Among those who came to the Pennsylvania oil fields was young John D. Rockefeller. Rockefeller, however, did not rush to drill for oil. He knew that oil had little value until it was refined, or purified, to make kerosene. Kerosene was used as a fuel in stoves and lamps. So Rockefeller built an oil refinery. 580 * Chapter 20 Industrial Growth  Rockefeller believed that competition Cause and Effect was wasteful. He used the profits from his refinery to buy up other refineries. He then combined the companies into the Standard Causes Oil Company of Ohio. Railroad boom spurs business Rockefeller was a shrewd businessman. Businesses become corporations He was always trying to improve the quality Nation has rich supply of natural resources of his oil. He also did whatever he could to New inventions make business more efficient get rid of competition. Standard Oil slashed its prices to drive rivals out of business. It pressured its customers not to deal with other oil companies. It forced railroad com- THE RISE OF INDUSTRY panies eager for his business to grant rebates to Standard Oil. Lower shipping Effects costs gave Rockefeller an important advan- Steel and oil become giant industries tage over his competitors. Monopolies and trusts dominate important industries The Standard Oil Trust To tighten his Factory workers face harsh conditions hold over the oil industry, Rockefeller Membership in labor unions grows formed the Standard Oil trust in 1882. A trust is a group of corporations run by a sin- gle board of directors. Effects Today Stockholders in dozens of smaller oil companies turned over their stock to United States is world's leading economic power Standard Oil. In return, they got stock in the American corporations do business around the world newly created trust. The trust paid the Government laws regulate monopolies stockholders high dividends. However, the board of Standard Oil, headed by Rockefeller, managed all the companies that had previously been rivals. The Standard Oil trust created a monopoly of the oil industry. A American industry boomed after the Civil War. The monopoly controls all or nearly all the business of an industry. The Standard Oil trust controlled 95 percent of all oil refining in the effects of industrial growth United States. are still being felt today. Other businesses followed Rockefeller's lead. They set up trusts 1. Comprehension List two causes for the rise of and tried to build monopolies. By the 1890s, monopolies and trusts industry. controlled some of the nation's most important industries. 2. Critical Thinking Drawing Conclusions The Case For and Against Trusts Why do you think the government now tries to Some Americans charged that the leaders of giant corporations were regulate monopolies? abusing the free enterprise system. In a free enterprise system, businesses are owned by private citizens. Owners decide what prod- ucts to make, how much to produce, where to sell products, and what Economics@ prices to charge. Companies compete to win customers by making the best product at the lowest price. The Case Against Trusts Critics argued that trusts and monopo- lies reduced competition. Without competition, there was no reason for companies to keep prices low or to improve their products. It was also hard for new companies to compete with powerful trusts. Critics were also upset about the political influence of trusts. Some people worried that millionaires were using their wealth to Chapter 20 Section 2 * 581  buy favors from elected officials. John Reagan, a member of Congress from Texas, said: " There were no beggars till Vanderbilts... shaped the actions of Congress and molded the purposes of government. Then the few became fabulously wealthy, the many wretchedly poor." -John Reagan, Austin Weekly Democratic Statesman, 1877 Under pressure from the public, the government slowly moved toward controlling giant corporations. Congress approved the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890, which banned the formation of trusts and monopolies. However, it was too weak to be effective. Some state governments passed laws to regulate business, but the corporations usually sidestepped them. The Case for Trusts Naturally, some business leaders defended trusts. Andrew Carnegie published articles arguing that too much competition ruined businesses and put people out of work. In an article titled "Wealth and Its Uses," he wrote: " It will be a great mistake for the community to shoot the millionaires, for they are the bees that make the most honey, and contribute most to the hive even after they have gorged themselves full." -Andrew Carnegie, "Wealth and Its Uses" Defenders of big business argued that the growth of giant corpo- rations brought lower production costs, lower prices, higher wages, and a better quality of life for millions of Americans. They pointed out that by 1900, Americans enjoyed the highest standard of living ** * in the world. Recall 1. Identify Explain the signifi- Section 2 Assessment 5. How did John D. Rockefeller monopolize the oil industry? *- cance of (a) Andrew Carnegie, 6. What arguments did support- ers and opponents of trusts Creating an (b) Bessemer process, (c) John Advertisement It is D. Rockefeller, (d) Sherman each use? 1875, and you have been Antitrust Act. Critical Thinking and Writing given the job of designing 2. Define (a) vertical integration, 7. Exploring the Main Idea a one-page advertisement (b) corporation, (c) stock, Review the Main Idea state- for the financial pages of a (d) dividend, (e) trust, ment at the beginning of the newspaper. The assign- (f) monopoly, (g) free ment: Explain the advan- section. Then, list the ways that enterprise system. tages of a corporation to a the need for capital led to new Comprehension ways of running businesses. public that is not familiar 3. Why did the steel industry grow 8. Applying Information with it. The goal: to get so quickly after the CivilWar? Andrew Carnegie once said of people to invest in 4. How did corporations and people who held onto their for- corporations. banking help the United States tunes, "The man who dies thus economy to expand? rich, dies disgraced:' How did Carnegie follow this philosophy? 582 * Chapter 20 Industrial Growth  TISING In thelndustritd Age Although ads had appeared in newspapers since colonial times, there was a boom in advertising after 1870.The growth of industry and the expansion of railroads made it possible to sell goods all over the country. At first, there were few limits on what an ad could claim. Many promised happiness, popularity, and a life of ease-if only the consumer bought the product being advertised. Elegance for the Wealthy The Stevens-Duryea was so classy 65 Cents Each! that its advertisement did not even That's what it cost for one of need words. The spacious car and the these 12-inch, double-sided well-dressed group of six adults-plus records. The 1914 ad says: "If their chauffeur-said everything about you think you have danced to luxury. The price forthis 1914 model: the best dance music that your $4,500 to $5,950-a huge amount for talking machine can produce, the times. have your dealer play anyone of these. Tangos, One Steps and Turkey Trots, Boston and Hesitation Waltzes. You will never be too tired when these waltzes are played." Through the Wringer Fashionable women tend to the laundry in this 1869 poster. It all seems very dignified in this spotless, well-stocked kitchen. However, before the days of electric-powered washing machines, doing the laundry was hard and messy work. Not a hint of this appears in the poster. Ask your school media specialist for old magazineswith adver- tisements. Select one ad and study it. Towhat emotion or hope does the ad appeal?Share your ideas with your classmates. Chapter 20 * 583  3 Inventions Change the Nation Reading Focus Key Terms Taking Notes What new devices speeded patent As you read, complete this table listing up communications after the advances that transformed American transatlantic the Civil War? life in the last half of the 1800s. Add as How did Thomas Edison moving assembly many bullets as you need to complete line the table. and other inventors bring new technologies to mass production Americans at work and at ADVANCES ADVANCES INTypewriters IN Air brakes TRAVEL HOME AND OFFICE home? CATION INcable COMMUNI- Transatlantic What changes did the auto- mobile and airplane make in American life? Main Idea New technologies transformed American industry and life in the late 1800s. SeUing the Scene The Patent Office had never seen a year like 1897. An average of nearly 60 patents, or licenses for new inven- tions, were being granted every day. By year's end, Americans had registered some 21,000 patents. This was more than the total recorded in the entire 1850s. The United States had become a land of invention. Between 1870 and 1900, patent officers issued more than 500,000 new patents. Some went to lone inventors like William Blackstone of Indiana. In 1874, he built a machine that washed away dirt from clothes. It was the first washing machine designed for use in the home. Other inven- tors, like the legendary Thomas Edison, filed patent request after patent request with the government. Thousands of inventions poured from his laboratory. A flood of invention swept the United States in the late 1800s. Some inventions helped industry to grow and become more efficient. Others made daily life easier in many American homes. ~~u J machme An ea.rly washing Use Prior Knowledge What Speeding Up Communications developments paved the way for the success of such inventions as Better communication was vital to growing American businesses. Some remarkable new devices filled the need for faster communica- the early washing machine? tion. The telegraph, which had been in use since 1844, helped people around the nation stay in touch. For example, a steel maker in Pitts- burgh could instantly order iron ore from a mine in Minnesota. Communicating Across the Atlantic The telegraph speeded up communication within the United States. It still took weeks, however, for news from Europe to arrive by ship. Cyrus Field had the idea of laying a cable under the ocean so that telegraph messages could go back and forth between North 584 * Chapter 20 Industrial Growth A Time of Invention INVENTOR DATE INVENTION Elisha Otis 1852 Passenger elevator brake George Pullman 1864 Sleeping car George Westinghouse 1869 Air brake Elijah McCoy 1872 Automatic engine-oiling machine Andrew S. Hallidie 1873 Cable streetcar Stephen Dudley Field 1874 Electric streetcar Alexander Graham Bell 1876 Telephone Thomas Alva Edison 1877 Phonograph Anna Baldwin 1878 Milking machine Thomas Alva Edison 1879 First practical incandescent light bulb James Ritty 1879 Cash register Jan E. Matzeliger 1883 Shoemaking machine Lewis E. Waterman 1884 Fountain pen Granville 1. Woods 1887 Automatic air brake 1893 Gasoline-powered car Charles and J. Frank Duryea_ King C. Gillette 1895 Safety razor with throwaway blades John Thurman :- -- Leo H. Baekeland 1899 1909 Motor-driven vacuum cleaner Improved plastic New inventions trans- America and Europe. He began working in 1854, making five formed daily life in the attempts to lay the cable. Each time, the cable snapped. In 1858, two United States. They also American ships managed to lay a cable between Ireland and New- helped the American econ- foundland. Field then arranged for Britain's Queen Victoria in omy grow. London to send the first transatlantic, or across the Atlantic, mes- 1. Comprehension sage to President James Buchanan in Washington, D.C. For three (a) What did George West- weeks, Field was a hero. Then, the cable broke. But Field would not inghouse invent? In what year? (b) Who improved give up. In 1866, the ship Great Eastern succeeded in laying the cable. on Westinghouse's inven- Field's transatlantic cable brought the United States and Europe tion? In what year? closer together and made him famous. He marveled at his success: 2. Critical Thinking " In five months... the cable had been manufactured, Applying Information Which of the inventions shipped... stretched across the Atlantic, and was send- on the chart might be ing messages... swift as lightning from continent to found in a home today? continent." -Cyrus Field, speech, 1866 Bell's "Talking Machine" The telegraph sent only dots and dash- es over the wire. Several inventors were looking for a way to trans- mit voices. One of them was Alexander Graham Bell, a Scottish-born teacher of the deaf. Bell had been working on his invention since 1865. In March 1876, he was ready to test his "talking machine." Bell sat in one room and spoke into his machine. His assistant, Thomas Watson, sat in another room with the receiver. "Mr. Watson, come here. I want to see you," Bell said. Watson heard the words faintly and rushed to Chapter 20 Section 3 * 585  Bell's side. "Mr. Bell," he cried, "I heard every word you said!" The telephone worked. Bell's telephone aroused little interest at first. Scientists praised the invention. Most people, however, saw it as a toy. Bell offered to sell the telephone to the Western Union Telegraph Company for $100,000. The company refused-a costly mistake. In the end, the tele- phone earned Bell millions. Bell formed the Bell Telephone Company in 1877. By 1885, he had sold more than 300,000 phones, mostly to businesses. With the telephone, the pace of business speeded up even more. People no longer had to go to a telegraph office to send messages. Business people could find out about prices or supplies by picking up the telephone. Edison: "The Wizard of Menlo Park" In an age of invention, Thomas Edison was right at home. In 1876, he opened a research laboratory in Menlo Park, New Jersey. There, Edison boasted that he and his co-workers created a "minor" invention every 10 days and "a big thing every six months or so." By the end of his career, Edison had earned worldwide fame as the greatest inventor of the age. Turning Invention Into a System The key to Edison's success lay Thomas Edison in his approach. He turned inventing into a system. Teams of experts refined Edison's ideas and translated them into practical inventions. This portrait was taken The work was long and grueling. "Genius," Edison said, "is one per- after Edison had gone without cent inspiration and ninety-nine percent perspiration." sleep for three days while working The results were amazing. Edison became known as the "Wizard on a way to record and then play of Menlo Park" for inventing the light bulb, the phonograph, and back sounds. At last, he received hundreds of other devices. his reward. He heard his own voice reciting "Mary Had a Little Lamb." One invention from Edison's laboratory launched a new industry: Supporting a Point of View the movies. In 1893, Edison introduced his first machine for showing How does Edison's experience moving pictures. Viewers watched short films by looking through a illustrate his belief that genius is peephole in a cabinet. Later, Edison developed a motion picture pro- "one percent inspiration and ninety- jector, making it possible for many people to watch a film at the nine percent perspiration"? same time. By 1908, thousands of silent-movie houses had opened in cities across the United States. The Power of Electricity One of Edison's most important cre- ations was the electric power plant. He built the first power plant in New York City in 1882 and wired the business district first in hopes of attracting investors. With the flip of a switch, Edison set the dis- trict ablaze with light. Within a year, Edison's power plant was supplying electricity to homes as well as businesses. Soon, more power plants were built. Factories replaced steam-powered engines with safer, quieter, elec- tric engines. Electric energy powered streetcars in cities and lighted countless homes. The modern age of electricity had begun. 586 * Chapter 20 Industrial Growth Technology Takes Command Almost every day, it seemed, American inventors were creating new devices. As technology took command, businesses became more effi- cient, and life became easier and more pleasant. The Refrigerated Railroad Car In the 1880s, Gustavus Swift came up with an idea that transformed the American diet. Swift introduced refrigeration to the meatpacking industry. In the past, cattle, pigs, and chickens had been raised and sold locally. Meat spoiled quickly, so it could not be shipped over long distances. Swift set up a meatpacking plant in Chicago, a railroad hub mid- way between the cattle ranches of the West and the cities of the East. Cattle were shipped by train to Chicago. At Swift's plant, the animals were slaughtered and carved up into sides of beef. The fresh beef was quickly loaded onto refrigerated railroad cars and carried to market. Even in summer, Swift sent fresh meat to eastern cities. New Technologies at the Office and at Home New inventions also affected life at home and in the office. Christopher Sholes per- fected the typewriter in 1868. This invention speeded up communi- cation between businesses. In 1888, George Eastman introduced the lightweight Kodak camera. No longer did photography require bulky equipment and chemicals. After 100 snaps of the shutter, the owner returned the camera to Kodak. The company developed the pictures and sent them back, along with a reloaded camera. Taking pictures became a popular pastime. African American Inventors African Americans contributed to the flood of inventions. In 1872, Elijah McCoy created a special device that oiled engines automatically. It was widely used on railroad engines and in factories. Another inventor, Granville T. Woods, found a way to send telegraph messages between moving railroad trains. Jan Matzeliger invented a machine that could perform almost all the steps in shoemaking that had previously been done by hand. Patented in 1883, Matzeliger's machine was eventually used in shoe factories across the country. Many African American inventors had trouble getting patents for their inventions. Even so, in 1900, an assistant in the patent office compiled a list of patents issued to African American inven- tors. The list, together with drawings and plans of all the inventions, filled four huge volumes. Automobiles and the Assembly Line No single person invented the automobile. Europeans had produced motorized vehicles as early as the 1860s. By 1890, France led the world in automaking. In the 1890s, several Americans began build- ing cars. Still, only the wealthy could afford them. Ford's Moving Assembly Line It was Henry Ford who made the auto a part of everyday American life. In 1913, Ford introduced the Chapter 20 Section 3 * 587 AmerleanHerilaue MAG A Z IN E HISTORY HAPPENED HERE Henry Ford Museum Not far from his Detroit auto plant, Henry Ford built a place to display "every household article, every kind of vehicle, every sort of tool. " Today at the Henry Ford Museum in Dear- born, Michigan, you can explore the world's largest transportation collection, from giant locomotives to classic cars. @ rake It to the NET Virtual Field Trip For an interac- tive look at the Henry Ford Museum, visit The American Nation section of www.phschool.com. moving assembly line. With this method of production, workers stay in one place as products edge along on a moving belt. At Ford's auto plant, one group of workers would bolt seats onto a passing car frame, the next would add the roof, and so on. The assembly line greatly reduced the time needed to build a car. Other industries soon adopted the method. Ford's assembly line allowed mass production of cars. Mass production means making large quantities of a product quickly and cheaply. Because of mass production, Ford could sell his cars at a lower price than other automakers. Cars for the Public It took a number of years for the automobile to catch on. At first, most people laughed at it. Some thought the "horseless carriage" was a nuisance. Others thought it was danger- ous. A backfiring auto engine could scare a horse right off the road. Towns and villages across the nation posted signs: "No horseless car- riages allowed." In Tennessee, a person planning to drive a car had to advertise the fact a week ahead of time. This warning gave others time to prepare for the danger! Over time, attitudes toward the automobile changed. No other means of travel offered such freedom. As prices dropped, more peo- ple could afford to buy cars. In 1900, only 8,000 Americans owned cars. By 1917, more than 4.5 million autos were chugging along American roads. Automobiles were at first regarded as machines for men only. Automakers soon realized, however, that women could drive-and 588 * Chapter 20 Industrial Growth buy-cars. Companies began to direct advertisements to women, stressing the comfort and usefulness of automobiles. Driving gave women greater independence. The First Flight Meanwhile, two Ohio bicycle mechanics, Orville and Wilbur Wright, were experimenting with another new method of transportation: fly- ing. The Wright brothers owned a bicycle shop in Dayton, Ohio. During the 1890s, they read about Europeans who were experiment- ing with glider planes. The brothers were soon caught up in the dream of flying. After trying out hundreds of designs, the Wright brothers tested their first "flying machine" on December 17, 1903, at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Orville made the first flight. The plane, powered by a small gasoline engine, stayed in the air for 12 seconds and flew a distance of 120 feet. Orville flew three more times that day. His longest flight lasted 59 seconds. Improvements came quickly after the first flight. By 1905, the Wrights had built a plane that could turn, make figure-eights, and remain in the air for up to half an hour. Surprisingly, the first flights did not attract much interest. No one could see any practical use for the flying machine. It was the United States military that first saw a use for air- planes. In 1908, the Wrights demonstrated how planes could fly over battlefields to locate enemy positions. Then, they produced an air- plane for the military that could reach the amazing speed of 40 miles per hour! In time, the airplane would achieve its vast potential. It would * *. * change the world by making travel quicker and trade easier. - * Afltl 'IOU ItAD Recall I 1. Identify Explain the signifi- cance of (a) Cyrus Field, Section 3 Assessment 5. How did the auto and the air- plane change American life? Critical Thinking and Writing (b) Alexander Graham Bell, (e) Thomas Edison, (d) Gustavus Swift, (e) Elijah 6. Exploring the Main Idea Review the Main Idea state- @ Take It to the NET Inventions for the ment at the beginning of the McCoy, (f) Henry Ford. section. Then, make a list of the Twenty-first Century 2. Define (a) patent, (b) trans- Use the Internet to find five most important inventions atlantic, (e) moving assembly of this period. Rank the five Web sites that predict line, (d) mass production. inventions in order of impor- inventions likely to make tance, and write a paragraph an impact on American Comprehension homes in 2050. Choose one 3. How did the transatlantic cable explaining your choices. invention, and write a and the telephone speed up 7. Drawing Conclusions Why might inventors be more cre- description for a newspaper communications? advertisement. Visit The 4. Name five other inventions ative working in an invention American Nation section of that changed the way factory, such as Edison's, than www.phsehool.eom for help Americans lived and worked in working on their own? in completing the activity. the late 1800s. Chapter 20 Section 3 * 589  4 The Rise of Organized Labor Reading Focus Key Terms Taking Notes How did workplace changes sweatshop As you read, prepare an outline of lead to the rise of labor this section. Use roman numerals Knights of labor organizations such as the strikebreaker to indicate the major headings, American Federation of capital letters for the subhead- labor? anarchist ings, and numbers for the sup- What progress and prob- Haymarket Riot porting details. The sample below lems affected women in the AFL will help you get started. workplace during the late trade union 1800s? I. New Workplace collective bargaining A. Children at work Why did organized labor IlGWU B. face hard times after 1870? II. The Rise of Organized Triangle Fire labor A. B. Trouble in Haymarket Main Idea As workers lost power over their working Square I conditions, they began to organize into unions and fight for better conditions. I Selting the Scene As James Davis looked back on his life, he recalled his youth working in a steel mill in the 1880s. Davis worked as a "puddler," the person who mixed the molten metals. Standing near white-hot furnaces, he learned to mix the right brew of metals at the right temperatures to produce fine steel. He noted with pride: "This process was handed down from father to son and in the course of time came to my father and so to me. None of us ever went to school and learned the chemistry of it from books. We learned the trick by doing it, stand- ing with our faces in the scorching heat.... " -James Davis, The Iron Puddler, 1922 But machines were taking over what people had done in the past. Giant converters could automatically mix the metals, cook them at the right temperatures, and produce excellent steel. Skilled puddlers like Davis were being transformed into mere tenders of those machines. The growth of these huge machine-driven factories affected all ~~~uJ In theInferences Draw steel millsWhat workers. By the late 1800s, a growing sense of powerlessness led do the picture and the quotation workers to join together. from James Davis tell you about the qualities required to be an old- time steelworker? A New Workplace Workers had to adjust to the new kinds of factories of the late 1800s. Before the Civil War, most factories were small and family run. Bosses knew their workers by name and chatted with them about their families. Because most workers had skills that the factory needed, they could bargain with the boss for wages. By the 1880s, the relationship between worker and boss had changed. People worked all day tending machines in a large, crowded, 590 * Chapter 20 Industrial Growth noisy room. Because their skills were easily replaced, many workers were forced to work for low wages. In the garment trade and other industries, sweatshops became common. A sweatshop is a workplace where people labor long hours in poor conditions for low pay. Most sweatshop workers were young women, or children. Children at Work The 1900census reported nearly 2 million children under age 15 at work throughout the country. Boys and girls labored in hazardous textile mills, tobacco factories, and garment sweatshops. In coal mines, they picked stones out of the coal for 12 hours a day, 6 days a week. Working children had little time for schooling. Lack of educa- tion reduced their chance to build a better life as adults. Hazards of Work Factories were filled with hazards. Lung- damaging dust filled the air of textile mills. Cave-ins and gas explo- sions plagued mines. In steel mills, vats of molten metal spilled with- out warning. Some workers had their health destroyed. Others were severely injured or killed in industrial accidents. In one year, 195 workers died in the steel mills of Pittsburgh. The Rise of Organized Labor Many workers found ways to fight back. Some workers slowed their work pace. Others went on strike. Strikes were usually informal, organized by workers in individual factories. Sometimes, workers banded together to win better conditions. However, most early efforts to form unions failed. Knights of labor In 1869, workers formed the Knights of Labor. At first, the union was open to skilled workers only. The members held meetings in secret because employers fired workers who joined unions. In 1879, the Knights of Labor elected Terence Powderly as their president. Powderly worked to strengthen the union by opening its membership to immigrants, African Americans, women, and unskilled workers. Poverty forced Mary Kenney to Powderly did not believe in strikes. Rather, he relied on rallies leave school in Hannibal, Missouri, and meetings to win public support. Goals of the Knights included a atthe age of 14. She worked first shorter workday, an end to child labor, and equal pay for men and as a dressmaker and later in a women. Most important, Powderly wanted workers and employers to printing plant. Then, she moved to share ownership and profits. Chicago. Shocked by the city's sweatshops, child labor, and low In 1885, some members of the Knights of Labor launched a strike wages, she helped form a women's that forced the Missouri Pacific Railroad to restore wages that it had bindery workers union. At the same previously cut. The Knights did not officially support the strike. Still, time, she fought the terrible condi- workers everywhere saw the strike as a victory for the union. tions in Chicago's slums. Kenney helped write a report for the state Membership soared to 700,000, including 60,000 African Americans. of Illinois exposing slum conditions. In 1892, she became a union Trouble in Haymarket Square The following year, the Knights of organizer. She kept up a hectic pace Labor ran into serious trouble. Workers at the McCormick Harvester even after she married and raised Company in Chicago went on strike. Again, the Knights did not three children. endorse the strike. How do you think Mary Like many companies at the time, the McCormick company Kenney's early life affected hired strikebreakers, or replacements for striking workers. On her view of workers' rights? Chapter 20 Section 4 * 591  Growth of Labor Unions May 3, 1886, workers clashed with strikebreakers outside the factory. Police opened fire, and four workers were killed. Ul - 0l:.. 3,000 I-.Qo (I) E.s:: a:s :iE "0 1898 Ul ~ (I) Year 1,500 2,000- 1,000 500 1902 1906 The next day, thousands of workers gathered in Haymarket Square to protest the killings. The rally 0 was led by anarchists, people who oppose all forms 2,500 of organized government. Suddenly, a bomb exploded, killing seven police officers. Eight anarchists were arrested for their part in the Haymarket Riot, as the incident was called. No real evidence linked these men to the bombing, but four were tried, convicted, and hanged. A wave of antilabor feeling swept the nation. Many Americans thought that the unions were controlled by anar- chists. As a result, membership in the Knights of Labor dropped sharply. American Federation 1910 1914 of Labor Despite the failure of the Knights of Labor, the Source: Historical Statistics of the United States labor movement continued to grow. In 1886, an immigrant cigar maker named Samuel Gompers organized a new union in Columbus, Ohio. The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was open to skilled workers only. A growing number of work- Workers did not join the AFL directly. Rather, they joined a ers joined unions in the late trade union, a union of persons working in the same trade. For 18005 and early 19005. example, a typesetter joined a typesetter's union. The union then 1. Comprehension joined the AFL. Thus, the AFL was a large organization made up of (a) How much did union membership increase many different unions. between 1898 and 1914? Unlike the Knights of Labor, the AFL stressed practical goals. It (b) What years showed a focused on higher wages, shorter hours, and improved working con- decrease in membership? ditions. It led the fight for collective bargaining, the right of unions 2. Critical Thinking to negotiate with management for workers as a group. The AFL also Drawing Conclusions supported the use of strikes to achieve its goals. In which time period on this chart do you think Its practical approach helped the AFL become the most powerful a recession hit the labor organization in the nation. Between 1886 and 1910, member- economy? ship in the AFL swelled from 150,000 to more than one and a half million. However, because African Americans, immigrants, and unskilled workers were barred from most trade unions, they could Economics@ not join the AFL. Women at Work By 1890, one million women worked in American factories. In the textile mills of New England and the tobacco factories of the South, women formed the majority of workers. In New York City, women outnumbered men in the garment industry. During the 1800s, some women formed their own unions. A few, like the all-black Washerwomen's Association of Atlanta, struck for higher wages. None of these unions succeeded, however. 592 * Chapter 20 Industrial Growth Mother Jones Organizes The best-known woman in the labor movement was Irish-born Mary Harris Jones, known as Mother Jones. Jones devoted much of her adult life to the cause of workers. Jones spoke out about the hard lives of children in textile mills, "barefoot... reaching thin little hands into the machinery." By calling attention to such abuses, Mother Jones helped pave the way for reform. Organizing Garment Workers In 1900, garment workers organ- ized the International Ladies' Garment Workers Union (ILGWU). More than 20,000 women and men in the ILGWU walked off their jobs in 1909. After a few weeks, employers met union demands for better pay and shorter hours. The ILGWU became a key member of the AFL. Despite the efforts of the ILGWU and other labor groups, most women with factory jobs did not join unions. They continued to work long hours for low pay. Many labored under unsafe conditions. Then, a tragic event focused attention on the dangers faced by women workers. Tragedy at Triangle The workday was just ending on a cool March day in 1911,when a fire broke out in the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory, a sweatshop in New York City. Within minutes, the upper stories were ablaze. Hundreds of workers raced for the exits, only to find The Triangle Fire them locked. The company had locked the doors to keep workers at The day after the fire, this story their jobs. In their panic, workers ran headlong into the doors, block- appeared in The New York Times: ing them with their bodies. "Cecilia Walker, 20 years old,... slid down the cable at the Fire trucks arrived almost immediately, but their ladders could Washington Place elevator and not reach the upper floors. One after another, workers trying to escaped with burned hands and escape the flames leaped to their deaths. One reporter wrote: body bruises. She was on the eighth floor of the building when " As I looked up... there, at a window, a young man the fire started. Running over to the was helping girls to leap out. Suddenly one of them put elevator shaft she rang for the car, her arms around him and kiss[ed] him. Then he held her but it did not come. As she passed into space and dropped her. He jumped next. Thud... the sixth floor sliding on the cable dead. Thud... dead." she became unconscious,... and does not know what happened until -The New YorkTimes, March 26, 1911 she reached St. Vincent's Hospital, where she is now. Nearly 150 people, mostly young women, lost their lives in the "'A girl and I,... were on the Triangle Fire. The deaths shocked the public. As a result, New eighth floor, and when I ran for the York and other states approved new safety laws to help protect elevator shaft my girl friend started factory workers. for the window on the Washington Street side. I looked around to call her but she had gone.''' Hard Times for Organized Labor -The New YorkTimes, The new era of industry led to vast economic growth. At the same March 26, 1911 time, it created economic strains. In the rush for profits, many indus- Analyzing Primary Sources tries expanded too fast. As goods flooded the market, prices How do you think the public dropped. To cover their losses, factory owners often fired workers. In reacted to stories of the fire? time, factories geared up again, and the cycle was repeated. The economy swung wildly between good times and bad. Between 1870 and 1900, two major depressions and three smaller recessions rocked the country. In such hard times, workers lost their jobs or faced pay cuts. Chapter 20 Section 4 * 593  Strike! During a severe depression in the 1870s, railroad workers were forced to take several cuts in pay. In July 1877, workers went on strike, shutting down rail lines across the country. Riots erupted in many cities as workers burned rail yards and ripped up track. Violent strikes also broke out in the West. In the 1870s, miners in Idaho tried to shut down two large mines. In 1893, after another bit- ter strike, miners formed the Western Federation of Miners. This union gained great strength in the Rocky Mountain states. Between 1894 and 1904, it organized strike after strike. Government Sides With Owners The federal government usual- ly sided with factory owners. Several Presidents sent in troops to end strikes. Courts usually ruled against strikers, too. In 1894, a Chicago court dealt a serious blow to unions. A year earlier, George Pullman had cut the pay of workers at his railroad car factory. Yet, he did not reduce the rents he charged them for company-owned houses. Workers walked off the job in protest. A federal judge ordered the Pullman workers to stop their strike. Leaders of the strike were jailed for violating the Sherman Antitrust Act. This act had been meant to keep trusts from limiting free trade. The courts, however, said that the strikers were limiting free trade. Slow Progress Union workers staged thousands of strikes during the late 1800s. However, few Americans supported the strikes. Many were afraid that unions were run by foreign-born radicals. Because unions were unpopular, owners felt free to try to crush them. Workers did make some gains. Overall, wages rose slightly between 1870 and 1900. Still, union growth was slow. In 1910, only one worker in 20 belonged to a union. Some 30 years would pass ** ** before large numbers of unskilled workers were able to join unions. AntR yOU - RtAO Section 4 Assess~ent Recall 5. Why did the labor movement 1. Identify Explain the signifi- suffer a number of major cance of (a) Knights of Labor, defeats after 1870? Creating Compound (b) Haymarket Riot, (c) American Critical Thinking and Writing Words During times of Federation of Labor, 6. Exploring the Main Idea technological change, (d) ILGWU,(e)Triangle Fire. Review the Main Idea state- many new words are cre- 2. Define (a) sweatshop, ment at the beginning of this ated. Some of them are (b) strikebreaker, (c) anarchist, compound words-words section. Then, write five state- (d) trade union, (e) collective invented by combining ments of fact that support the bargaining. main idea. two existing words. There Comprehension 7. Making Generalizations are two examples of these 3. How did changing factory con- Why do you think that it often words in the Key Terms for takes a tragedy to spur people this section. Find these ditions promote the rise of labor unions in the late 1800s? to make reforms? words and tell what they 4. What advances did women mean. Then, create five make in the workplace, and compound words of your own from the content of what problems still remained in the late 1800s? this chapter. 594 * Chapter 20 Industrial Growth You can increase your understanding of history by asking questions about what you see and read. Formulating, or drafting, questions is a critical-thinking process that helps you become a more effective learner. The better your ques- tions, the more you will learn. Child labor became a common practice in the United States during the 1800s. These photographs show boys and girls in work situations about a century ago. Learn the Skill To formulate questions, use the fol- Practice the Skill Answer the following questions lowing steps: about the photographs above: 1. Examine the material. Ask basic questions to 1. (a) What kind of work are the people in each pho- help summarize what you are seeing or reading. tograph doing? (b) Ask and answer a basic ques- Formulate questions that begin with who, what, tion of your own. when, where, and how much. 2. (a) How are the people dressed? (b) Form an ana- 2. Think of analytical questions. These are ques- lytical question of your own. tions that reflect a thoughtful approach to the 3. (a) Are the working conditions healthful or harm- information. They might begin with how