Classification Of Research PDF

**CHAPTER 2: CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH** **CONTENTS** 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Contents 3.1 Classification by philosophical approach 3.2 Classification of purpose 3.3 Classification by design 3.4 Classification by evidence 3.5 Classification by discipline 3.6 Other classif...

**CHAPTER 2: CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH** **CONTENTS** 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Contents 3.1 Classification by philosophical approach 3.2 Classification of purpose 3.3 Classification by design 3.4 Classification by evidence 3.5 Classification by discipline 3.6 Other classifications 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Assignment 7.0 References / Further Reading **1.0 Introduction** Now that you have understood the concept and significance of communication research, the next step is to classify research. This is crucial because research is not a monolithic enterprise but comes in various types or formats. We have earlier indicated that even the steps in the research procedure differ slightly from discipline to discipline and from one researcher to another. Therefore, it is obvious that classification of research is not an easy exercise. Researchers are not agreed on the classification of research. Indeed, there is no hard and fast rule for classifying research. This means that one type of research can overlap and fit into more than one category at the same time. For the convenience of this unit, research has been classified according to philosophical approach, purpose, design, data approach, level of data analysis as well as "others". **2.0 Objectives** On successful completion of this unit, you should be able to: - identify the various types and formats of research in mass communication and the social sciences - describe the content and context of the various research formats - adopt them for use in your own research project. **3.0 MAIN CONTENT** **3.1 Classification by philosophical approach** There are two main research philosophies or approaches in the social sciences. These are *positivistic* and *phenomenological* perspectives. Positivistic approach also known as quantitative approach is founded on the belief that the study of human behaviour or social phenomenon should be conducted in the same way as studies conducted in the natural or physical sciences. Positivistic approach seeks to identify, measure (calculate) and evaluate phenomena and provide rational explanations for them. Phenomenological approach also known as qualitative approach is founded on the belief that human behaviour is not easily measured as phenomena in the natural or physical sciences. This approach is particularly concerned with understanding behaviour from the participant's own subjective frame of reference. Kothan (2009) further explains that quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount (numeric data) while quanlitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena, that is, phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind (non-numeric data). Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior. Data analysis in quantitative research is mainly statistical or deductive approach. As noted by Des Witson, Esiri and Onwubere (2008), qualitative research is designed primarily to yield non-quantitative or non-numerical data. It involves the collection of extensive narrative data in order to gain insights into the phenomena of interest. Data analysis involves the coding of data and production of a verbal synthesis or inductive process. In other words, it does not depend on the measurement of variables or research elements. **3.2 Classification by Purpose** Research can also be classified according to its purpose. In this regard, research can either be *basic* (fundamental) or *applie*d (action). According to Kotham (2009), applied research aims at finding solutions for immediate problems facing a society, business or industrial organizations whereas basic or fundamental research in its purest term is conducted solely for the purpose of theory development or refinement. This is why it is also referred to as academic research or "gathering knowledge for knowledge sake". In other words, basic research is conducted for academic purposes rather than for its intrinsic value for the society. For example, the type of research you will conduct of the end of your studies at NOUN is most likely to be basic or fundamental research. Research studies concerning human behaviour or social phenomena conducted with a view to make generalizations about human behaviour are examples of fundamental or basic research. They have little or no practical value or application. They are the dominant types of research conducted mostly by the academia (i.e. scholars in university faculties and other tertiary institutions). Research aimed at finding certain solutions facing a concrete social or business problem is a good example of applied research. Similarly, research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular organization or research to find out whether certain media content will be read and understood by the target audience are examples of applied research. Therefore, the main aim of applied research is to discover or find a solutions for some pressing practical problems whereas fundamental or basis research is directed towards finding information that here a broad base of applications and thereby adds to the already existing organized body of knowledge in that discipline. **SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE** Visit the library and read four Mass Communication related projects and identify their philosophical approaches. **CLASSIFICATION BY DESIGN** A very convenient way of classifying research is by design, which has been defined by De Vaus (2001) as "a logical structure of inquiry or research." Frankfurt-Nachmias and Machics (2009) cited in Popoola (2012) state that a research design is the programme that guides the researcher as he/she collects, analyses and interprets observations. Popoola (2012) states that research design is a plan of action or specification for collecting data necessary and suitable for testing hypotheses and provide answers to research questions under specified conditions. Research design is different from the methods by which data are collected. De Vaus (2001) clarifies this point when he states that there is nothing intrinsic about any research design that requires a particular method of data collection. He explains that data for any research design can be collected with any data collection method and how the data are collected is irrelevant to the logic of the design. Popoola (2002) explains that there are three basic types of research designs namely analytical, experimental and descriptive. According to him, analytical research involves mathematical, linguistic, historical and philosophical analysis as well as any deductive system that can be adopted to derive relationships not necessarily of empirical nature. Experimental research design involves conducting experiments while descriptive research design represents an attempt to provide an accurate description or picture of a particular situation or phenomenon at one or more points in time. Kothan(2009) explains that the major purpose of descriptive research design is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In the social and management sciences, the term *ex post facto* research is used for descriptive research designs. He explains that the main characteristic of this design is that the researcher has no control over the variables, he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most *ex post facto* research studies are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as for example frequency of television viewership or radio listening. *Ex post facto* studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of quantitative research utilized in descriptive research are survey research of all kinds and causal-comparative and correlational designs. The above notwithstanding researchers talk of two basic research designs- quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative research designs include experimental research, survey research and content analysis.: **Experimental research design.** According to Severin and Tankard (2001) cited in Des-Wilson, Esiri and Onwubere, (2008), experimental research design is the "classic method of dealing with the question of causality, that is, the relationship between something that happened and the reason for it happening or cause and effect". Popoola (2012) corroborates this fact when he states that experimental research is the most frequently used research design to study cause and effect relationship between and among variables or the studied subjects/participants. He explains that in experimental research, the researcher manipulates one or more variables in an attempt to influence the characteristics of the subjects/participants. The investigator has the responsibility of making his/her groups equivalent and of controlling all other variables that are capable of influencing the outcome except the one the researcher is interested in manipulating. Experimental research is the dominant design in the natural or physical sciences hence some researchers from that discipline assert that there are only two types of research designs---experimental and non-experimental. It is important to state, however, that there are several types of experimental research designs, but these can be grouped into three basic types --classical, pre-experimental and quasi-experimental. Classical experimental designs include pretest-posttest control group, posttest only control group, the Solomon four groups, multiple experimental groups and factorial designs. Pre-experimental designs include the one-group pretest-posttest, one-group post-test only and static comparison/posttest only with nonequivalent group designs. Quasi-experimental designs include the nonequivalent control group, time series/interrupted time series and multiple time series designs. **Survey research design**. This is about the most popular research design among social and management sciences researchers. There is hardly any area or topic of interest in these disciplines that has not been investigated or studied at some time with survey research. Also, most people have had one form of experience or the other with survey research. Basically, survey research design is quantitative social research in which a researcher asks respondents the same questions, records and analyses their responses or answers. In other words, survey research involves the collection of social data from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions. It is an efficient method for systematically collecting social data from a broad spectrum of individuals. The popularity of survey research derives from its versatility, efficiency and generalizability. Versatility means that it is used to investigate diverse areas in various disciplines. Survey research is efficient in the sense that several variables can be measured without substantially increasing the time or cost. Generalizability means that the results obtained from a sample survey can be applied to the larger population. Survey research is often the most appropriate design for developing a representative picture of the attitudes, opinions and characteristics of a large population. In fact, its purpose is for a researcher to describe the attitudes, opinions, behavior or characteristics of the population based on data collected from a sample of a population. Des Wilson, Esiri and Onwabere (2008) corroborate this point when they noted that survey research focuses on people; their vital facts which include beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivations and behavior. Survey research is conducted to collect and analyze social, economic, psychological and other types of social data. There are different types of survey research designs. Descriptive survey documents current conditions or attitudes while analytical survey explains why situations exist. Longitudinal survey is conducted over time; cross sectional survey is conducted at one point in time while correlational survey attempts to determine to what extent a relationship exists between two or more variables. **Content analysis** is a research design that used to be peculiar to communication researchers but now utilized by researchers from other disciplines. When researchers want to investigate the manifest content of recorded communication, the appropriate research approach is content analysis. Kerlinger(2000) defines content analysis as "a method of studying and analyzing communication in a systematic, objective and quantitative manner for the purpose of measuring variables." McQuail (2010) defines it as "the systematic, quantitative and objective description of media text; that is useful for certain purposes of classifying output; looking for effects and making comparisons between media and over time or between content and reality. The major concepts in content analysis are systematic, objective and quantitative. Systematic means that the content to be analyzed is selected according to explicit and consistently applied rules. Objective means that the researcher's personal idiosyncrasies and biases should not enter the findings while quantitative means that content analysis is designed to yield numeric data because it involves the measurement of variables. As stated by Des Wilson, Esiri and Onwubere (2008) the objectives of content analysis include the following: - To describe trends in communication content. - To disclose international differences in communication content - To audit communication content against objectives - To expose propaganda techniques - To discover stylistic features **SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE** A researcher is considering the following topic for his research project: "Cambodian attitudes toward Facebook food videos." What research design will be most appropriate for this study and why? Having discussed quantitative research designs we now examine qualitative designs. As already explained qualitative research involves the collection of extensive narrative data in order to gain an insight into the phenomenon of interest and is also planned primarily to yield non-numerical data. Qualitative research designs are many and include intensive interview, focus group discussion, ethnography, observation, case study, philosophical/discursive, literature review, evaluation, phenomenology and grounded theory. **Intensive (in-depth) interview**, according to Onabajo (2010), is really an extended conversation but it has a different purpose from that of an ordinary conversation. Unlike a typical conversation in in-depth interview is highly focused. It is conducted to get at particular issues such as hidden feelings or attitudes and beliefs to which a respondent may not be aware of or that are only dimly in his or her conscience. According to Wimmer and Dominick (2011:139) intensive or in-depth interviews are unique in that they generally use small samples; provide detailed background about the reasons why respondents give specific answers; allow for lengthily observation of respondents' nonverbal responses and are usually very long. **Focus group discussion** (FGD) also known as group discussion is a research design for understanding people's attitudes and behaviour. According to Wimmer and Dominic (2011:132), in a focus group, 6 to 12 people are interviewed simultaneously in an unstructured discussion about the topic under investigation. Krueger and Casey (2000) cited in Wimmer and Dominick (2001:133) state that FGD has some defining characteristics- participants selected should posses certain characteristics and are recruited to share a quality of interest to the researcher. In addition, focus group has a focused discussion. Onabajo (2011) adds that the aim of FGD is not to build consensus but to elicit from each participant his or her opinion and description of the behavior of interest. It is mostly conducted by marketers who want to find out how people feel about a product, service or issue. FGD then is a kind of probe to find out how people think and act. **Observational research** is based on things seen. It is the classic method of scientific inquiry. It involves not only the ability to perceive events as they occur but also to nose for fine details that others may take for granted. According to Sctizet et al (1976) citied in Des Wildon, Esiri and Onwubere (2008), the basic principle of observational research is that it is an attempt to summarize, systematize and simplify the representation of an event rather than provide an exact representative of it. Observational research is commonly applied in the behavioural sciences and is also regarded as the gathering of primary data by the researcher's own direct experience (observation) of relevant people, actions and situations without necessarily asking from the respondents. Observation can yield information which people may be unwilling or unable to provide. There are different types of observational research which include structured, unstructured, participant, non-participant and disguised or covert observation. **Historical research** design comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary and other secondary sources to present accounts of the past. It relies on records, diaries, oral tradition, photographs and other artifacts to describe, analyze and explain past events, movement, philosophies and such like. Popoopla (2012) adds that historical research design is a systematic and objective location, evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past events with a view to explain the occurrence of past events and predict that of the future. Historical research relies significantly on inductive, logical reasoning. **Ethnography** is the study of an intact group, logically defined in its natural context for a sustained time interval. In other words, it involves any study of a group of people for the purpose of describing their socio-cultural activities and patterns. Ethnographic researchers use a variety of data collection techniques including intensive interview, diary keeping, analysis of exiting documents, video recording among others. The researcher in ethnographic research is typically an observer or a participant observer. In **case study** research design, a single person, event, process, institution, organization and such like are combination of appropriate data collection techniques and often stresses the experiences and interpretations of those involved. It usually generates new understand, explanations or hypothesis. Care studies are routinely utilized in business, medicine and law. **Philosophical/discursive** design may cover a variety of approaches but drawn primarily on existing literature rather than new data. A discursive study could examine a particular issue, perhaps from alternative perspectives. It can also put forward a particular argument or examine a methodological issue. The **literature review** design is basically an attempt to summarize or comment on what is already known about a particular topic. However, it is defined as a systematic, explicit and reproducible way of identifying, evaluating and interpreting all of the research findings and scholarly works available on a topic. A high quality review is not haphazard but consists of all existing works. There are three types of literature review designs. These are narrative, systematic and meta-analysis. Narrative review is the selective review of the literature that broadly covers a specific topic. Systematic review utilizes exacting research strategies to make certain that the maximum extent of relevant research has been considered. Meta-analysis qualitatively combines the results of studies that are the outcome of a systematic literature review. **Evaluation** research refers to the process of assessing the effectiveness of a programme planning, implementation and impact. In determines how well a programme or campaign has achieve its stated goals or objectives. It can also be an assessment of organizational change. An evaluation can be formative (designed to inform the process of development) or summative (to judge the effects). Often an evaluation will have elements of both. Evaluation research is widely applied in Advertising, Marketing, Public Relations, Education among other disciplines/professions. **Phenomenology** is rooted in philosophy. It involves a researcher developing an understanding of a subject's or subjects' reality. In other words, this approach investigates an individual's or groups' perception of reality as the researcher constructs it. The reality may be expressed as an event, programme, relationship, emotion among others. **Grounded theory** is a general research approach used in building or developing, a theory, providing a new perspective on a subject or topic. It reverses the approach in research which emphasizes data collection in order to test validity or theoretical propositions in favour of an approach that emphasizes the generation of theory from data. Furthermore, in this approach, theory is generated from observation made rather than being decided before the study is conducted. It seeks to challenge previous research approaches that look for evidence in the data to confirm or deny established theories or practices. According to the Bradford University School of Management (2013) the aim of grounded theory then is to approach research with no preconceived idea about what might be discovered or leaned. **3.4 CLASSIFICATION BY EVIDENCE** Research can also be classified on the basis of evidence. In this regard, research is classified as either *conceptua*l or *empirical.* Conceptual research is that which is related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally utilized by researchers especially philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research is based on hard data consisting of hypotheses or research questions, statistical tests and conclusions which are capable of being verified. Empirical research is usually quantitative in nature and involves gathering of primary or first-hand data. In this approach, the researcher first formulates working hypotheses, collects and analyzes data to confirm (accept) or reject the hypotheses. According to Kothan(2009) empirical research is appropriate when proof is required to prove that certain variables affect others in some ways. Evidence generated through empirical studies is considered to be the most powerful support for a given hypothesis. **3.5 Classification by Discipline** Another classification of research is by discipline. Some research studies are classified according to subject matters. In this regard, researchers talk of Medical research, Marketing research, Advertising research, Public Relations research, Legal research, Sociological research, Political Science research, Mass Media research among others. **3.6 Other Classifications of research** Other classification of research not yet mentioned so far in this unit includes the following: **Triangulation** This is also referred to a "mixed methods." Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004) cited in the Harwell (2011) define this approach as the class of research where the researcher mixes or combines quantitative and qualitative research techniques, methods, approaches, concepts or language into a single study. They further explain that mixed methods research also is an attempt to legitimize the use of multiple approaches in answering research questions rather than restricting or constraining researchers' choices to either quantitative or qualitative designs. The fundamental principle of mixed methods according to John and Turner (2003) cited in Harwell (2013) is that multiple kinds of data should be collected with different strategies and methods in ways that reflect complementary strengths and non-overlapping weaknesses, allowing mixed methods to provide insight not possible when only qualitative or quantitative data are collected. Wimmer and Dominick (2011:49) add that triangulation helps researchers to fully understand the nature of a research problem. **Strategic Research** This type of research is used primarily in Public relations, Advertising, Marketing among others to determine programme objectives, develop message strategies or establish benchmark or standards. It often examines programme tools and techniques. For instance, an organisation that wants to know how employees rate its image in internal publications would first conduct strategic research to find out where it stands. **Monitoring research.** In this type of research conducted mostly be Public Relations practitioners, a constant eye is kept on media houses and journalists to fund our any information that is likely to damage their organisations or client's reputation if it is published. Different strategies are utilized to ensure that such damaging information is not published. Research can also be classified from the point of view of time. In this regard, we talk of *one-time* or *longitudina*l research. The former is confined to a single time period whereas in the latter case, the research is carried on over several time periods. Research can also be classified in terms of environment or setting. In this regard, research can *field-setting* or *laboratory* research or *simulation* research. Research may also be *exploratory* or *formalized*. The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing whereas formalized research is that with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. There is also *primary* or *secondary* research. Primary research in involves first-hand observation and investigation by a researcher such as conducting a survey, carrying out an experiment or analyzing newspaper content. On the other hand, secondary research involves the examination of studies that other researchers have made of a subject. It is also known as *library* or *desk* research. Research can also be classified as *conclusion-oriented* or *decision-oriented* research. The former allows a researcher to pick a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. However, *decision-oriented* research is always for the need of decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of decision-oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decision regarding operations under their control. **4.0 CONCLUSION** In this unit. we have represented a wide variety of research methods which are available to the communication researcher. These methods may go by various names or labels but essentially the labels remain what they are but their descriptions refer to similar strategies. We have by no means exhausted all that an be said on the subject but any student who diligently follows this presentation should be able to familiarize himself or herself with the various methods of social science research of which communication research is a component. **5.0 SUMMARY** In this unit you have learnt that: - Research studies are variously classified by researchers. These groupings are labels based on some common traits. - The major classifications are philosophical approach purpose, design and evidence. - The most important classification however is by design. - Choice of a particular research method for any study will depend on the nature of the study and purpose. of the researcher **6.0 ASSIGNMENT** Consider the following researchable topics: **7.0 References/Further Reading** De Vaus, D. A. (2001) Research designs in social research. London: Sage Des Wilson, Esiri, M and Onwubere, C.H. (2008) *JLS 714: Communication research*. Lagos: National Open University of Nigeria Harwell, M.R. (2011) Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. In C. Conrad and R.C. Serlin (Eds.), The Sage handbook for research in education**:** Pursuing ideas as the keystone of exemplary inquiry (*Second Edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage* Kerlinger, F.N. and Lee, B.H. (2000*) Foundations of behavioural research*. New York: Harcourt College Publishers. Mc Quail, D. (2010*)* Mc *Quail's Mass Communication Theory* (6th Edition) London: Sage. Onabajo, O (2011) *Foundations of communication research* Lagos: Sibon Books Ltd. Mc Quail, D. (2010*)* Mc *Quail's Mass Communication Theory* (6th Edition) London: Sage. Popoola, S. O. (2012) Conceptual model building and research design. Being a paper presented on research methods at Chapel seminar series of School of Postgraduate Studies, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Ogun State, on 3rd December, 2012. Wimmer R.D. and Dominick J.R. (2011) *Mass Media Research: An Introduction*. Wadsworth Cengage Learning. **\ Internet Sources** Bradford University of Management(2012) Introduction to research and research methods. Accessed at www.brad.ac.uk Kotham, C.R. (2009) *Research Methodology: methods and techniques*. Accessed at www.limit.org on April 3, 2013. Research Methodology (For private circulation only) Accessed at www.hmgwaliarpdfresearch 28 **8.0 QUIZ** ***Section 1: Choose the best answer for each of the multiple-choice questions below.*** 1. How is research classified according to its philosophical approach? 2. What are the two main research philosophies in the social sciences? 3. Which research approach seeks to identify, measure, and evaluate phenomena in a rational manner? 4. What is the main focus of the phenomenological approach to research? 5. According to Kothan (2009), what type of data is associated with qualitative research? 6. Which method of data analysis is primarily used in quantitative research? 7. What is the primary goal of quantitative research? 8. How is research classified according to purpose? 9. What is the aim of applied research? 10. Which type of research is conducted solely for theory development or refinement? 11. What type of research aims to make generalizations about human behavior? 12. How is research conveniently classified by design? 13. According to De Vaus (2001), what is a research design? 14. What is the main purpose of descriptive research design? 15. Which type of research design involves conducting experiments to study cause and effect relationships? 16. Survey research design is primarily associated with: 17. What is the efficiency of survey research design based on? 18. Which type of research design is often appropriate for developing a representative picture of attitudes and opinions? 19. What is the purpose of survey research? 20. What distinguishes basic or fundamental research from applied research? ***Section 2: Answer the following questions in your team and share with the class.*** 1. Visit the library and read four Mass Communication related projects and identify their philosophical approaches. 2. A researcher is considering the following topic for his research project: "Cambodian attitudes toward Facebook food videos." What research design will be most appropriate for this study and why? 3. Consider the following researchable topics: