Prenatal Period PDF

CHAPTER 2: P R E N ATA L P E R I O D OBJECTIVES W H AT I S P R E N ATA L PERIOD?  P R E N ATA L PERIOD The prenatal period is defined as the gestational period, from conception to birth.  Prenatal period was not recognized not until mid-1940’s that developmental ps...

CHAPTER 2: P R E N ATA L P E R I O D OBJECTIVES W H AT I S P R E N ATA L PERIOD?  P R E N ATA L PERIOD The prenatal period is defined as the gestational period, from conception to birth.  Prenatal period was not recognized not until mid-1940’s that developmental psychologist turned their attention to the prenatal period. It was recognized that knowing what happens before birth is essential to a complete understanding of Prenatal the normal pattern of the development and to a realization to what can happen Period to distort this pattern. Today there is extensive evidence to show how conditions in the prenatal period can and do affect development before birth. This has justified beginning the study of development from the moment of conception rather than the time of birth.  C H A RA C T E R I S T I C S O F P R E N ATA L P E R I O D It is in many respect one the most important period of all. This period which begin and end at birth, approximately 270 to 280 days in length or 9 months in calendar months. Prenatal period has six characteristics, each of which has lasting effects on development during the life span.  The hereditary endowment which serves as the foundation for later development is fixed once and for all, at this time. While favorable or unfavorable conditions both before and after birth may and probably will affect to some extent the physical and psychological traits that make up this hereditary endowment, that changes will be quantitative and not qualitative.  Favorable condition in the mother’s body can foster the development of  The sex of the newly created individual is fixed at the time of conception and conditions within the mother’s body will not affect it.  Proportionally greater growth and development take place during the prenatal period than at any other time throughout the individual’s entire life. During these nine months, the individual grows from a microscopically small cell to an infant who measures approximately twenty inches in length and weigh on an average 3-3.5 kg. Development is rapid.  The prenatal period is a time of many hazards, both physical and psychological. This can have a marked effect on the pattern of later development or may even bring development to an end.  The prenatal period is the time when significant people form attitudes toward newly created individuals. These attitudes will have a marked  HOW LIFE BEGINS New life begins with the union of a male sex cell and a female sex cell. These sex, cells are developed in the reproductive organs, the gonads. The male sex cells, the spermatozoa are produced in the male gonads, the testes, while the female sex cells, the ova or ovum are produced n the female gonads, the ovaries. There are twenty three pairs of chromosomes in each mature sex cell and each chromosome contains genes – the true carriers of heredity. Male cells undergo two stages of development – maturation and fertilization, while female cells go through three stages – maturation, ovulation, and fertilization. Maturation - is the process of achieving full development or growth. The embryo and fetus matures in utero until organ systems are capable Ovulation - refers to the release of an egg from an ovary. It usually happens around 12–16 days before the next period. Fertilization - the process of combining the male gamete, or sperm, with the female gamete, or ovum. The product of fertilization is a cell called a zygote.  I M P O RTA N T C O N D I T I O N S Hereditary endowment is the determination of the newly created individual’s hereditary. Hereditary places limits beyond which individuals cannot go and it is entirely a matter of chance in the number of chromosomes from the maternal or paternal side that will be passed on to the child. Sex – Determination of sex is the second important happening at the time of conception. Sex depends on the kind of spermatozoon that unites with the ovum. Number of offspring – when a ripe ovum is fertilized by one spermatozoon, the result will be a singleton, unless the fertilized ovum splits into two or more distinct parts during the early stages of cell cleavage, when this happens, the result will be identical twins, triplets or other multiple births. When two or more ova are released simultaneously and are fertilized by different spermatozoa, the result will be non identical twins, triplets or other multiple births. Effects on Development Most studies of the effects of multiple birth on development have been limited to twins for the reason that triplets, quadruplets and other multiple births occurs very infrequently and the mortality rates among them are much higher than among twins. During the early years, when the foundation of the personality pattern are being laid, twins must share the mother’s attention and consequently, may feel unloved or actually rejected. Many parents, especially mothers feel that children of multiple births should be dressed alike and share the same friends and engage with the same play activities. This is particularly true when children are same sex.  C O M M O N C H A RA C T E R I S T I C S O F T W I N S  Developmental Lag - in physical, mental, motor, and speech development. Twins tend to lag behind singletons of the same age. Lag in motor and speech development is also seen. This lag may be due to brain damage or to prematurity but it is more likely to be due to parental over protectiveness.  Physical Development - Twins tend to be smaller, age for age, than singletons. This is generally due to the fact that they are premature. They also suffer from brain damage and other physical defects more often than singletons.  Mental Development – Mental similarities between identical twins are much greater than between non - identical twins and this persists into old age. Identical twins also show strong similarities in terms of  Social Development - twins tend to compete for adult attention, to imitate each other’s speech and behavior, and to depend on each other for companionship during the preschool years. As they grow older, sibling rivalry and competition develop. One twin usually takes on the role of leader, forcing the other into the role of follower. This affects their relationships with other family members and with outsiders  Personality Development – Many twins have difficulty in developing a sense of personal identity. This is especially true of identical twins and of non - identical twins of the same sex. Others enjoy the close relationship of twin ship and the attention they receive as a result by their similarity in appearance. This leads to self- satisfaction and self-confidence.  Behavior Problems – behavior problems have been reported to be more common among twins than among singletons of the same ages. It is thought that this is a result of the way twins are treated, both at home and outside the home. Behavior problems have also been reported to be more common among non-identical than among identical twins. It has been suggested that this is because rivalry is stronger between non-identical than identical twins.  Ordinal Position - The fourth thing happening at the time of conception is the establishment, of the new child’s ordinal position among siblings, such as the role the individual plays in the family and the treatment received from significant family members and their attitudes. Long-Term Effects of Ordinal Period There is a study that ordinal positions may become a persistent factor in determining the kind of personal and social adjustment the individual will make throughout the life span. There is a evidence that the first borns lend to be brighter and higher achievers that the later born siblings. First born are not only given more intellectual stimulation than later born but they are also given more opportunities to develop their intellectual abilities in school and college. According to Zajonc “Parents and Psychologist have always regarded first borns children as different, and special and as a result, have give them more intellectual stimulation and opportunities to develop their  C O M M O N C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S A S S O C I A T E D W I T H O R D I N A L P O S I T I O N S Firstborns Behave in a mature way because of association with the adults and because they are expected to assume responsibilities.  Resent having to serve as models for younger siblings and having to assume some of their care.  Tend to conform to group wishes and pressures to be suggestible as a carryover of conformity to parental wishes.  Have feelings of insecurity or resentment.  Lack dominance and aggressiveness  Develop leadership abilities as result of having to assume responsibilities at home.  Usually are high achievers or overachievers because of parental pressures and expectations Middle-born Learn to be independent and adventuresome as a result of greater freedom.  Become resentful or try to emulate the other’s behavior when compared unfavorably.  Resent privileges older sibling are granted.  Act up and break rules to attract some parental attention to themselves.  Act up and break rules to attract some parental attention to themselves.  Resent privileges older sibling are granted.  Have fewer responsibilities than firstborns which often they interpret as meaning they are inferior. Last born Tend to be willful or demanding as result of less strict discipline and spoiling. Have fewer resentments and greater feelings of security. Are usually protected by parents from physical and verbal attacks by older siblings Tend to underachieve because of fewer parental expectation and demands. Experience good social relationship outside the home and are generally popular but infrequently leaders.  Tend to be happy because of attention and spoiling from family members during early childhood.  P E R I O D S O F P R E N ATA L P E R I O D The prenatal period is ten lunar months of twenty eight days each in length or nine calendar months. This can vary from 180 to 334 days. Because prenatal development is orderly and predictable, it is possible to give a timetable of the important development taking place during this period. This period is divided into three stages. Time Table of prenatal development Period of the Zygote ( fertilization to end of second week) The size of the zygote – that of a pinhead – remains unchanged because it has no outside source of nourishment; it is kept alive by yolk in the ovum. As the zygote passes down the fallopian tube to the uterus, it divides many times and separates into an outer and an inner layer. The outer layer later develops into the placenta, the umbilical cord, and the amniotic sac, and the inner layer develops into a new human being. About ten days after Period of the Embryo ( end second week to end of second lunar month) The embryo develops into a miniature human being. Major development occurs, in the head region first and in the extremities last. All the essential features of the body, both external and internal, are established. The embryo begins to turn in the uterus, and there is spontaneous movement of the limbs. The placenta, the umbilical cord, and the amniotic sac develop; these protect and nourish the embryo. At the end of the second prenatal month, the embryo weighs, on an Period of the Fetus (end of the second lunar month to birth) A fetus is a prenatal human being between the embryonic stage and birth. The fetal stage extends from the beginning of the ninth week after fertilization to about 38 weeks after fertilization, which is the average time of birth. The fetal stage lasts a total of approximately 30 weeks.  O R I G I N O F AT T I T U D E S Many factors affect influence the formation of attitude towards children.  Firstly, young people earlier experience with children have a marked effect on how they feel about them in general and about their own impending roles as parents.  Second the experiment of friends, either in the past or present, color the individual’s attitudes.  Third, a parent or grandparent who loves children who pities people who are childless can influence a person’s attitude.  Fourth, a person’s attitude toward the sex of unborn child can be influenced the stereotype ideas.  P E R S I S T E N C E O F AT T I T U D E  Attitudes, likes, dislikes, and prejudices persist, often in the form of modifications. These changes are quantitative, becoming less or more favorable than their original form. There are two reasons for the persistence of attitudes: recognizing their flaws and modifying them through personal experiences.  Attitudes towards a child are often based on valid beliefs and justified reasons, which can persist even after the child’s birth. These attitudes are highly emotionally toned and difficult to change, as they may be difficult to change. For example, a woman who resents being tied down to care for younger siblings may still have a strong attitude towards the child.  C O N D I T I O N S I N F LU E N C I N G AT T I T U D E S Many conditions affect the attitudes both favorably and unfavorably of parents, siblings, and grandparents toward a child. A careful study of the conditions listed will show that different conditions affect the attitudes of different significant people. Conditions Affecting Attitudes of Significant People Mother’s Attitude Love of children. Desire for companionship. Desire to please her husband or improve a poor marital relationship. Desire to be like her friends who have children. Feelings of inadequacy for the parental role. Resentment at having to give up a career. Resentment at the physical discomforts and weight gain associated with pregnancy.  Resentment at being overworked or tied down. Father’s Attitudes Desire for the son to carry on the family name. A need to prove his virility to himself and to others Feelings of inadequacy for the parental roles. Resentment at interference with educational or vocational plans. Worry about the financial burdens of raising a child.  Resentment at being tied down. Sibling’s Attitudes Desire for playmate. Desire to have as many siblings as their friends. Fear of losing parental affection and attention. Fear of having to share a room or toys with the new sibling or having to care for it.  Desire for sympathy from friends who complain about their own siblings. Grandparent’s Attitudes Desire for a grandchild to carry on the family name. Love of child. Desire to be useful by helping care for the grandchild.  Fear of being imposed on financial or other help.  E F F E C T S O F AT T I T U D E S O N C H I L D R E N Attitudes play a significant role in the development of a child. Mothers’ attitudes can affect their unborn baby through endocrine changes, which can occur due to severe stress. Favorable attitudes lead to good body homeostasis, promoting normal development during the prenatal period. After birth, these attitudes are reflected in the child’s treatment, with mothers who want a boy may have a less favorable attitude towards a daughter. Other family members’ attitudes, such as fathers, siblings, and grandparents, can also affect the child. While their attitudes may persist, they may change slightly depending on the child’s conformity to their expectations and treatment.  H A Z A R D S D U R I N G P R E N ATA L P E R I O D During the short period before birth, there are more serious developmental hazards, either physical or psychological. Physical hazards are more recognized, while psychological hazards can affect attitudes and intensify physical hazards. Common physical hazards  Period of the Zygote Starvation The zygote will die of starvation if it has too little yolk to keep it alive until it can lodge itself in the uterine wall or if it remains too long in the tube.  Period of the Embryo  Miscarriages Falls, emotional shocks, malnutrition, glandular disturbances, vitamin deficiency, and serious diseases such as pneumonia and diabetes, can cause the embryo to become dislodged from its place in the uterine wall, resulting in a miscarriage. Miscarriages that are due to unfavorable conditions in the prenatal environment are likely to occur between the tenth and eleventh week after conception.  Developmental Irregularities Maternal malnutrition, vitamin and glandular deficiencies; excessive use of drugs, alcohol, and tobacco; and diseases, such as diabetes and German measles, interfere with normal development, especially that of the embryonic brain. Period of the Fetus  Miscarriages Miscarriages are always possible upto the fifth month of pregnancy; the most vulnerable time is when the woman’s menstrual period would normally occur.  Prematurity Fetuses which weigh less than 1 kg have less chance of surviving than heavier fetuses and a greater chance of developing malformations.  Complications of Delivery Maternal stress affects uterine contractions and is likely to lead to complications during birth.  Developmental Irregulaties Unfavorable environmental conditions during embryonic development can affect fetal development and delay the entire pattern. Psychological hazards, such as traditional beliefs about prenatal development, maternal stress, and unfavorable attitudes towards the unborn child, can have persistent effects on an individual’s development. These hazards can include fear, anger, grief, jealousy, and unfavorable attitudes towards multiple births. Infancy, the second and most important stage in life, deals with characteristics, adjustments, birth types, and activities.  Multiple births are more hazardous than single ones due to crowded fetal periods, increased prematurity, and potential developmental irregularities. These births are more common among blacks, contributing to higher infant mortality rates and developmental irregularities. Long-Term Effects  Developmental irregularities can cause long-term effects on an individual, often not diagnosed until months or years after birth. These irregularities, such as epilepsy, cerebral palsy, and mental deficiency, can lead to guilt and overprotection. Malnutrition during pregnancy can damage the developing fetal brain, causing learning difficulties, especially reading disabilities. Damage to the fetal brain can affect behavior and become more apparent as children grow. Attempts to Cope with Developmental Irregularities Two approaches are used to address developmental irregularities: genetic counseling and amniocentesis. Genetic counseling involves a detailed study of a couple’s medical history to determine if there are any physical or mental abnormalities in their families. If these findings suggest genetic abnormalities, parents are advised to use birth-control techniques to prevent pregnancy or consider abortion. Amniocentesis is a medical procedure that involves withdrawing a sample of amniotic fluid from a pregnant woman’s uterus, guided by ultrasound, to ensure it doesn’t penetrate the developing fetus’s body. Psychological Hazards Psychological hazards during the prenatal period can significantly impact an individual’s development and postnatal environment. Three key psychological hazards include traditional beliefs about prenatal development, mathematical stress during the prenatal period, and unfavorable attitudes from significant individuals.  Traditional Beliefs  Traditional beliefs about the prenatal developmental period can have damaging effects on parents’ treatment of their children and attitudes towards each other. Despite scientific evidence, many people believe they can control the sex of their offspring through intercourse, acid or alkaline environments in the woman's reproductive organs, or artificial  Maternal Stress Maternal stress is a significant psychological hazard during pregnancy, resulting from fear, anger, grief, jealousy, or envy. Common causes include marital or economic difficulties, physical discomforts, feelings of inadequacy, and fears of physical or mental deformities in the child. Stress affects the developing child both before and after birth, leading to irregularities, complications of delivery, and prematurity. Severe stress can also affect uterine contractions, resulting in longer labor and increased complications. Less severe stress may lead to developmental irregularities, but increased fetal activity can be beneficial for healthy muscular development.  Unfavorable Attitudes on the Part of Significant People Unfavorable attitudes towards children during the prenatal period are a These attitudes can lead to disappointment, resentment, intolerance, or rejection. If the child is not wanted, attitudes are unfavorable from the start, and parents may blame their wives for not preventing the pregnancy, causing marital friction and resentment. Unwanted children often experience adjustment difficulties, leading to a sober reappraisal of current attitudes. Unfavorable attitudes towards multiple births are stronger and more persistent than those toward singletons, especially when multiple births occur unexpectedly and parents have not had time to adjust. Common Unfavorable Attitudes towards an Unborn Child  Not Wanting the Child The mother may not want a child due to illegitimacy, interference, or overwork, while the father may not want the child due to financial  Not Wanting the Child at this Time Parents may resist a child due to potential interference with their educational plans, inexperience, financial constraints, or unwillingness to assume parental responsibilities, while grandparents may fear financial burden.  Preference for a Child of a Particular Sex Fathers, grandparents, mothers, and siblings typically prefer a male or female firstborn, with some preferring boys for their husbands, while others prefer a girl for companionship and playmates.  Dream Child Concept Family members’ dream-child concepts influence attitudes towards unborn babies, with parents and grandparents aiming for perfect  Wanting to Have a Miscarriage or an Abortion Unwanted babies often lead to women hoping for miscarriage or abortion, leading to feelings of guilt and potential future children. This unfavorable attitude can result in overprotectiveness and overindulgence towards the child they hoped not to have.  Scorn for the Child Parents may have unfavorable attitudes towards their child-to-be due to illegitimacy, stigma, or interracial/interreligious marriage. This can lead to defensive treatment or rejection, as parents may feel embarrassed or ashamed. T H A N K YO U