Chapter 2 - Leader Development PDF

Chapter 2 - Leader Development results of her experience; only 30 percent is due to heredity. Introduction...

Chapter 2 - Leader Development results of her experience; only 30 percent is due to heredity. Introduction o Certain experiences have greater developmental The chapter also examines several impact than others in specific mechanisms often used shaping a person’s to help leaders become better effectiveness as a leader. leaders. o What makes such Perhaps a word here might be experiences valuable are useful about titling this chapter the challenges they present leader development. to the person. it became useful to use leader o Different types of development when referring to experience teach different methods intended to facilitate leadership lessons. growth in an individual’s Some of the most useful perspectives or skills. experiences for learning If you accept that leadership can leadership come in the jobs we’re be learned (rather than just “being assigned to, and they can be born” in a person), and if you also designed to better enhance their believe that the most powerful developmental richness. lessons about leadership come Obstacles exist to getting all the from your own experience, then developmental experiences we the matter boils down to the may desire, but we can still get process of how you learn from many of them through our own experience. diligence and with some Morgan McCall has summarized organizational support. some of the key things we’ve Learning to be a better leader is a learned about leader development lifelong pursuit with many twists over the past several decades in and turns. these seven general points: o To the extent that leadership is learned at all, The Action–Observation–Reflection it is learned from Model experience. In fact, about Experiential learning theorists, 70 percent of variance in a such as Kolb, believe people learn person’s effectiveness in a more from their experiences when leadership role is due to the  they spend time thinking about them These ideas are extended to leadership in the action– observation–reflection (A-O-R) model Figure 2.1, which shows that leadership development is enhanced when the experience involves three different processes: action, observation, and reflection leadership development through experience may be better He emphasized the situational understood as the growth resulting importance of the leader’s from repeated movements through attention to detail, especially all three phases rather than merely during moments of stress, in terms of some objective confusion, and fatigue, when dimension like time (such as how mistakes may be most likely to long one has been on the job). happen. We believe the most productive way to develop as a leader is to The Key Role of Perception in the Spiral travel along the spiral of of Experience experience depicted in Figure 2.1. Experience is not just a matter of A-O-R model what events happen to you; it also o Action depends on how you perceive o Observation those events. o Reflection Perception affects all three phases of the action–observation– reflection model and thus plays an important role in what anyone will extract from a leadership course or from any leadership situation. Perception and Observation  Observation and perception both Perceptual sets influence what we deal with attending to events attend to and what we observe. around us. In addition, perception also Both seem to take place influences the next phase of the spontaneously and effortlessly, so spiral of experience—reflection— it is easy to regard them as passive because reflection is how we processes. interpret our observations Our usual mental images of the Perception is inherently an perceptual process reflect this interpretive, or a meaning-making, implicit view. activity. An important aspect of The fallacy of this passive view of this is a process called perception is that it assumes we attribution. attend to all aspects of a situation o Attributions are the equally. explanations we develop for However, we do not see everything the characteristics, that happens in a particular behaviors, or actions to leadership situation, nor do we which we attend. hear everything. This tendency to overestimate the Instead we are selective in what dispositional causes of behavior we attend to and what we, in turn, and underestimate the perceive. environmental causes when A phenomenon that demonstrates others fail is called the this selectivity is called fundamental attribution error. perceptual set. People prefer to explain others’ o Perceptual sets can behavior on the basis of personal influence any of our senses, attributions even when obvious and they are the tendency situational factors may fully or bias to perceive one account for the behavior. thing and not another. By contrast, if you attempted to get o A similar phenomenon others to form a study group and takes place when one failed, you would be more likely to expects to find mostly blame factors in the situation for negative things about the failure another person (such as a This reflects a self-serving bias— problem employee). the tendency to make external attributions Perception and Reflection  for one’s own failures yet make o A person’s expectations internal attributions for one’s about another may successes influence how he acts A third factor that affects the toward her, and in reaction attribution process is called the to his behavior she may act actor/observer difference. in a way that confirms his o This refers to the fact that expectations. people who are observing o An illustrative interaction an action are much more sequence is shown in likely than the actor to Figure 2.2. make the fundamental attribution error. Perception and Action We have seen how perception influences both the observation and reflection phases in the spiral of experience. It also affects the actions we take. In general, these researchers found that supervisors were biased toward making Reflection and Leadership dispositional attributions about a Development subordinate’s substandard Perhaps the most important yet performance and, as a result of most neglected component of the these attributions, often action–observation–reflection recommended that punishment be model is reflection used to remedy performance Reflection is important because it deficits. can provide leaders with a variety Another perceptual variable that of insights into how to frame can affect our actions is the self- problems differently, look at fulfilling prophecy situations from multiple o which occurs when our perspectives, or better understand expectations or predictions subordinates. play a causal role in The importance of reflection in bringing about the events developing executive competence we predict.  continues to be a major element of others, and better understand the advancing scholarly thought and complexities of leadership. practice. Intentional reflection might even Leadership development can be prompt you to see potential enhanced by raising such implicit benefits in experience not initially beliefs to conscious awareness considered relevant to leadership and thereby more to thoughtful in organizational settings. reflection. The prints were used to evoke Single- and Double-Loop Learning metaphors of leadership, and ultimately five fundamental Argyris described an intensive archetypes of leadership were effort with a group of successful identified: chief executive officers who o Teacher–Mentor, who became even better leaders cares about developing through increased self-awareness. others and works beside Argyris said that most people them as a role model. interact with others and the o Father–Judge, who environment on the basis of a provides oversight, control, belief system geared to moral guidance, and caring manipulate protectiveness. Most important for our purposes o Warrior–Knight, who takes here, this belief system generates risks and action in a crisis. a certain kind of learning that o Revolutionary–Crusader, Argyris called single-loop who challenges the status learning. quo and guides adaptation. o Single-loop learning o Visionary–Alchemist, who describes a kind of learning imagines possibilities that between the individual and can benefit all members the environment in which and brings them into reality. learners seek relatively little The process by which these feedback that may archetypes were identified significantly confront their demonstrated the value of helping fundamental ideas or developing leaders articulate their actions. tacit knowledge of leadership, see o Individuals learn only about similarities and differences subjects within the comfort between their own views and zone of their belief systems.  Double-loop learning involves a have been and how willingness to confront your own individuals believe they views and an invitation to others to might behave differently in do so, too. the future It springs from an appreciation that openness to information and Making the Most of Your Leadership power sharing with others can lead Experiences: Learning to Learn from to better recognition and definition Experience of problems, improved communication, and increased For decades, researchers have decision-making effectiveness. been studying the role of learning What makes double-loop learning from experience as an important so difficult? By their very nature, developmental behavior for people leadership experiences are often in executive positions. ambiguous; they typically involve Although this research has multiple stakeholders having contributed a great deal to what multiple perspectives and people need to learn to be interests; and emotional stakes successful can be high less is known about the process of Learning about leadership from learning or how we learn to be your raw experience is not easy, successful. not even for those deeply To be successful, learning must committed to doing so. A recent continue throughout life, beyond study sheds further light on how it the completion of one’s formal can be enhanced. education. It turns out that although unaided People who lead in modern learning from experience is organizations need to be engaged difficult for all the reasons just in a never-ending learning process. noted, it can be enhanced through Kevin Wilde has had decades of a practice of systematic reflection experience in developing executive or after event reviews (AERs). leaders, and he believes it can be o These AERs involved summed up in the concept of reflection and facilitated coachability discussion on personal He says that a person's leadership experiences coachability, or ability to learn such as what the potential from experience, can be captured impact of alternative in terms of a few key practices, leadership behaviors might such as:  Valuing and signaling to others an o Some courses or program interest in feedback and an intent elements might involve to improve. individualized feedback to Seeking feedback proactively and students in the form of regularly. personality, intelligence, Reflecting on that feedback and values, or interest test responding constructively to it. scores or leadership Acting on valued feedback, and behavior ratings sustaining improvement over time. o Case studies describe leadership situations and are used as a vehicle for Leader Development in College leadership discussions. o Role playing is also a Leadership studies need to be popular methodology. academically authorized courses o Simulations and games of study are other methods of leader Another important feature is that development. leadership programs need to deliberately cultivate values represented in the broader field, Leader Development in Organizational especially those that are Settings particularly salient at each local college-based leadership studies institution. differ in some significant ways These values could include social from the leader development responsibility and the expectation programs one finds in the to become engaged in one’s corporate sector or in the military community; in such cases service the fact that the essential purpose learning is a common part of the of college-based programs is to programs. prepare students for their ultimate leadership studies inherently productive service as citizens, require a social dimension of including in their own vocations. experience. Although all of the relatively short- Finally, as implied by the term development methods just interdisciplinary nature of mentioned are used routinely in leadership studies, a variety of organizational programs, some of faculty from many different the most potent work-based departments and disciplines leader development methods are should be involved in the program longer term in nature.  But critical voices have questioned In fact, leadership development certain assumptions on which has only recently been subjected much of the leadership to the same kind of rigorous development effort in analysis that other business organizations seems to be based. decisions, especially capital One recent critique, for example, investments, routinely face. high- lights these three That kind of analysis is used to questionable assumptions: determine return on investment, o Successful organizations or ROI are created by leaders who The content of industry programs possess “the right stuff.” also depends on the organizational Thus, if organizations can level of the recipients; programs find and develop enough for first-level supervisors focus on leaders with the “right developing supervisory skills such stuff,” then organizational as training, monitoring, giving success will follow. feedback, and conducting ▪ Leadership potential performance reviews with (having the “right subordinates. stuff”) is best Generally these pro- grams use assessed by gauging lectures, case studies, and role- individual attributes. playing exercises to improve Thus, the winning leadership skills. formula for The programs for mid-level organizational managers often focus on success is improving interpersonal, oral fundamentally communication, and written based on a communication skills, as well as constellation of giving tips on time management, individual traits and planning, and goal setting characteristics. These programs rely more heavily ▪ Leadership on individualized feedback, case effectiveness can be studies, presentations, role- assessed and playing, simulations, and in-basket developed in exercises to help leaders develop. environments With in-basket exercises, independent of the participants are given a limited context in which a amount of time to prioritize and leader works.  respond to a number of notes, enduring behavior change taking letters, and phone messages from place. a fictitious manager’s in-basket o Question 1: Do leaders know which of their behaviors need to change Action Learning o Question 2: Is the leader motivated to change these Perhaps the best way to behaviors? appreciate the nature of action o Question 3: Do leaders learning is to contrast it with more have plans in place for traditional training programs. changing targeted Action learning, by contrast, refers behaviors? to the use of actual work issues o Question 4: Do leaders and challenges as the have opportunities to developmental activity itself. practice new skills The basic philosophy of action o Question 5: Are leaders learning is that for adults in held accountable for particular, the best learning is changing targeted learning by doing. behaviors? Development planning is more than a plan—it is really a process. Development Planning Good development plans are Managers seem to fall into the continually being revised as new same categories: Some managers skills are learned or new change once they gain insight, opportunities to develop skills others change with social and become available. organizational support, and others may not ever change. Research suggests several Coaching strategies that leaders can use to Coaching is a key leadership skill accelerate the development of that can help leaders improve the their own leadership skills. bench strength of the group, which These include five critical in turn should help the group behavioral change questions, and accomplish its goals. leaders must provide positive Because of its role in answers to all five questions if they development, coaching can also want to maximize the odds of  help to retain high-quality features deserve followers. mention. Coaching is the “process of ▪ There is a one-on- equipping people with the tools, one relationship knowledge, and opportunities they between the man- need to develop and become more ager and the coach successful. (that is, an internal In general, there are two types of or external coaching: informal and formal. consultant) that o Informal coaching takes lasts from six place whenever a leader months to more than helps followers to change a year. their behaviors. ▪ The coach and the ▪ According to manager then meet Peterson and Hicks, regularly the best informal ▪ A formal coaching coaching generally program can cost consists of five steps more than $100,000, ▪ forging a and it is reasonable partnership, to ask if this money inspiring is well spent. commitment, growing skills, promoting Mentoring persistence, and In an organization, you also can shaping the gain valuable perspectives and environment insights through close association o Formal coaching programs with an experienced person willing provide a similar kind of to take you under her or his wing. service for executives and Such an individual is often called a managers in leadership mentor, positions. Mentoring is a personal ▪ Formal coaching relationship in which a more programs are experienced mentor (usually individualized by someone two to four levels higher their nature, but in an organization) acts as a guide, several common  role model, and sponsor of a less someone for whom the protégé experienced protégé. worked a number of years earlier. Mentors provide protégés with As in coaching, there are both knowledge, advice, challenge, formal and informal mentoring counsel, and support about career programs opportunities, organizational o Informal mentoring occurs strategy and policy, office politics, when a protégé and mentor and so forth. build a long-term Although mentoring has a strong relationship based on developmental component, it is friendship, similar interests, not the same as coaching. and mutual respect. One key difference is that o Formal mentoring mentoring may not target specific programs occur when the development needs. organization assigns a Protégés often meet with their relatively inexperienced but mentors to get a different high-potential leader to one perspective on the organization or of the top executives in the for advice on potential committee company. and task force assignments or promotion opportunities Another difference is that this Building Your Own Leadership Self- guidance is not coming from the Image protégé’s immediate supervisor, This chapter has explored various but rather from someone several aspects of how leadership leadership levels higher in the develops, but we must organization acknowledge that not everyone Protégés often do receive informal wants to be a leader or believes he coaching from their bosses but or she can be. may be more apt to seek career Remember that you are a “work in guidance and personal advice progress,” who even yet may not be from their mentors. ready to take full advantage of the Another difference is that the leadership opportunities available mentor may not even be part of the to you organization. A mentor may have retired from the organization or may have been