Chapter 2: Mineralogy PDF

Chapter 2 MINERALOGY CVE 203 FLORENCE T. SAMONTE BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY – Main Campus  TOPICS 1 Definition Terms...

Chapter 2 MINERALOGY CVE 203 FLORENCE T. SAMONTE BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY – Main Campus  TOPICS 1 Definition Terms 2 Importance of Mineralogy 3 Formation of Minerals 4 FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Classifications of Minerals 5 Physical Properties of Minerals FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Terminologies  Terminologies MINERALOGY - the study of the chemistry, crystal structure and physical properties of the mineral constituents of rocks. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.colorado.edu/geologicalsciences/research/petrology-mineralogy  Terminologies MINERAL - is a naturally occurring inorganic element or compound having an orderly internal structure and characteristic chemical composition, crystal form, and physical properties. Organic compounds are derived from or produced by living organisms and have carbon-hydrogen covalent bonds. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Inorganic compounds are derived from nonliving components, and generally have ionic bonds, lack carbon-hydrogen bonds, and rarely, if ever, contain any carbon atoms. https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-difference-between-rock-and-mineral https://study.com/academy/lesson/comparing-inorganic-organic-compounds-explanation-practice.html  Extra Info Minerals can be described by various physical properties which relate to their chemical composition. The physical and chemical properties of the minerals are influenced by the mineral’s geological environment of formation. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  Pink Granite Natural Granite https://www.geologysuperstore.com/product/pink-granite/ https://geology.com/rocks/granite.shtml Dark Grey/Black Granite White Granite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.archiexpo.com/prod/dvtstone/product-150456-1702590.html  The International Mineralogical Association recognizes approximately 5,500 different kinds of minerals. Minerals make up the rocks of the Earth’s lithosphere and mantle. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  Importance of Mineralogy in Civil Engineering FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  Importance of Mineralogy in Civil Engineering From the civil engineering point of view, rock-forming minerals are important because engineers need to identify the characteristics of rocks. It enables them to classify different rocks for different purposes, i.e., concrete aggregate, floorings, foundation rock, roofing minerals, road metal, or decorative materials. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Thus, knowledge of the minerals that form rocks helps engineers assess rocks’ properties, such as physical strength, appearance, and durability. https://hamed-geo.com/importance-of-geology-in-civil-engineering  Processes in the Formation of Minerals FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  Processes in the Formation of Minerals Solidification (Crystallization) - hot molten magma solidifies through cooling FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://finance.yahoo.com/video/thick-lava-flows-hawaii-volcano-014150428.html https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeology2ed/chapter/2-5-formation-of-minerals/  Stages in Solidification (also known as crystallization). NUCLEATION This is the initial stage in the formation of a crystal, and it involves the formation of a small cluster of atoms or molecules, known as a nucleus. CRYSTAL GROWTH As the magma continues to cool, more atoms and molecules join the crystal structure, causing it to grow in size. SOLIDIFICATION At this point, the minerals have fully formed and are locked into a solid rock structure. https://opengeology.org/Mineralogy/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/halite-crystallizing-small.jpg https://brainly.com/question/14373271  Extra Info The presence of some catalytic substances (mineralizers) like water vapours, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, chlorine, fluorine and boric acid greatly facilitates the process of formation of minerals from the magma and enhance the process of crystallization. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  SOLIDIFICATION https://www.allcrystal.com/cry Quartz Sapphire Feldspar stals/feldspar/ https://www.istockphoto.com/photo/set- of-blue-sapphires-gm501533295- 42627450 https://www.britannica.com/scien http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2016/1 ce/silica Diamond Aquamarine https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ru Ruby 1/aquamarine-gemstone.html FLORENCE T. SAMONTE by#/media/File:Corundum- 215330.jpg https://geologyscience.com/minerals/d iamond/#jp-carousel-2512  Processes in the Formation of Minerals Precipitation from aqueous solution- minerals are formed when water evaporates and leaves behind solid layers of minerals 1) Fresh water contains a small amount of dissolved elements. Salt water contains many more dissolved elements. Water can only hold a certain amount of dissolved substances. 2) When the water evaporates, it leaves behind a solid layer of FLORENCE T. SAMONTE minerals. 3) The particles come together to form minerals. 4) These solids sink to the bottom. https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-earth-science-flexbook-2.0/section/4.4/primary/lesson/mineral-formation-ms-es/ https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeology2ed/chapter/2-5-formation-of-minerals/  PRECIPITATION (Aqueous Solution) Gypsum crystals form as the water evaporates Lake Lucero, State of Mexico https://www.nps.gov/whsa/learn/gypsum.htm https://geology.com/minerals/gypsum.shtml FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  PRECIPITATION (Aqueous Solution) Halite/Rock Salt Las Coloradas https://www.mindat.org/min-1804.html FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.backyardnature.net/n/x/halite.htm  Processes in the Formation of Minerals Precipitation from gaseous emanations – mineral-rich gases escape from deep subsurface chambers and form minerals 1) When super heated, mineral-rich gases escape from deep subsurface chambers, they are released at the surface through fumaroles, vents and volcanoes. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-earth-science-flexbook-2.0/section/4.4/primary/lesson/mineral-formation-ms-es/ https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeology2ed/chapter/2-5-formation-of-minerals/  Fumaroles are openings in the Active Fumaroles earth’s surface that emit steam Fourpeaked Mountain, US and volcanic gases, such as sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. They can occur as holes, cracks, or fissures near active volcanoes or in areas where magma has risen into the earth’s crust without erupting. A fumarole can FLORENCE T. SAMONTE vent for centuries or quickly go extinct, depending on the longevity of its heat source. https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/fumaroles.htm https://www.usgs.gov/news/earthword-fumarole#:~:text=Definition%3A,sulfur%20dioxide%20and%20carbon%20dioxide. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.shetland.org/geopark/geology/earth-processes/shetlands-volcano  Processes in the Formation of Minerals Precipitation from gaseous emanations – mineral-rich gases escape from deep subsurface chambers and form minerals 1) When super heated, mineral-rich gases escape from deep subsurface chambers, they are released at the surface through fumaroles, vents and volcanoes. 2) Very rapid drops in temperature and pressure cause minerals FLORENCE T. SAMONTE to form around hydrothermal and volcanic openings. Hydrothermal vents form at locations where seawater meets magma. https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/vents.html https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-earth-science-flexbook-2.0/section/4.4/primary/lesson/mineral-formation-ms-es/ https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeology2ed/chapter/2-5-formation-of-minerals/ FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.worldatlas.com/oceans/hydrothermal-vents.html  Black Smoker White Smoker FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.worldatlas.com/oceans/hydrothermal-vents.html  PRECIPITATION FROM GASEOUS EMANATIONS Sulphur Cristobalite Italy Germany Clinocore UK, England FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.mindat.org/min-3826.html https://www.mindat.org/min-1155.html  Processes in the Formation of Minerals Recrystallization - formation of new minerals directly from the elements within existing minerals under conditions of elevated temperature and pressure Solid-state recrystallization is a metamorphic process that occurs under high temperatures and pressures where atoms of minerals are reorganized by diffusion and/or dislocation glide. The mineral composition may remain unchanged. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://dbpedia.org/page/Recrystallization_(geology) Diffusion is the transport process by which atoms, ions or molecules dissolved in a medium, such as minerals, glasses, melts, gases or fluids, migrate. https://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/mineralogy/mineral_physics/diffusion.html https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeology2ed/chapter/2-5-formation-of-minerals/  Recrystallization FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Edge-dislocation-glide_fig6_370613486 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_boundary_sliding  Recrystallization FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Change in grain size https://quizlet.com/514727458/earth-science-week-5-flash-cards/  Recrystallization FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Change in minerals assemblage https://quizlet.com/514727458/earth-science-week-5-flash-cards/  Recrystallization FLORENCE T. SAMONTE New minerals precipitate https://quizlet.com/514727458/earth-science-week-5-flash-cards/  Recrystallization FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Change in shape of grains https://quizlet.com/514727458/earth-science-week-5-flash-cards/  RECRYSTALLIZATION FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Granite Gneiss https://opengeology.org/textbook/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/06.1-03-Granite-vs-Gneiss.jpg  Classifications of Minerals FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  Classification of Minerals (On the basis of application/use) ROCK-FORMING MINERALS ORE-FORMING MINERALS commonly found in the Earth’s extracted from the Earth’s crust crust and are responsible for the and processed to obtain the formation of various types valuable elements or minerals for of rocks various industrial, manufacturing, FLORENCE T. SAMONTE and commercial purposes important for civil engineers important for metallurgical and mining engineers, and mineralogical professionals https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals/  Rock-forming Minerals TYPE Silicate Materials COMPOSITION silicon (Si) magnesium (Mg) oxygen (O) potassium (K) aluminum (Al) sodium (Na) calcium (Ca) iron (Fe) CHARACTERISTICS solid, crystalline, and naturally occurring FLORENCE T. SAMONTE IMPORTANCE help scientists understand the processes that shape the Earth’s crust, such as igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic processes https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals  Rock-forming Minerals Quartz (SiO2) Olivine Feldspars Clay minerals Mica Carbonates Amphibole Hematite (Fe2O3) Pyroxene Magnetite (Fe3O4) Calcite (CaCO3) FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals  https://www.geologyin.com/2015/11/what-is-granite-and-how-is-it-formed.html Quartz (SiO2) Quartz is one of the most abundant minerals on Earth and is a major component of many rocks, including granite, quartzite, and sandstone. It is known for its hardness, resistance to weathering, and wide range of colors and crystal forms. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.alexstrekeisen.it/english/meta/quartzite.php FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Rocks with Quartz  Rocks with Quartz Types of Sandstone FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Rocks with Quartz Quartzose sandstone Micaceous sandstone Gritstone Sandstone with shells https://www.sandatlas.org/sandstone/ FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Rocks with Quartz  Feldspars Feldspars are a group of rock-forming minerals that make up a significant portion of the Earth’s crust. The most common types of feldspars are orthoclase, plagioclase, and microcline. Feldspars are important components of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks, and their composition and proportions can provide clues about the rock’s origin and history. Orthoclase Plagioclase Microcline FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologyscience.com/minerals/orthoclase https://www.britannica.com/science/plagioclase https://www.mindat.org/min-2704.html https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.mindat.org/min-48350.html https://geologyscience.com/rocks/sedimentary-rocks/non- clastic-sedimentary-rock/arkose/ Syenite Rocks with Feldspar Arkose https://gotbooks.miracosta.edu/rocks/metamorphic%20rocks/6. html https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibolite Amphibolite Gneiss  Mica Red Muscovite Mica is a group of sheet silicate minerals, including muscovite and biotite, known for their excellent cleavage and distinctive platy appearance. Mica minerals are common in metamorphic rocks and can also occur in igneous and sedimentary rocks. https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/25478914143 Muscovite schist Muscovite fushcite Biotite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologyscience.com/minerals/orthoclase https://www.mindat.org/gm/1617 https://geology.com/minerals/biotite.shtml https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.nps.gov/subjects/geology/igneous.htm Granite Rocks with Mica https://www.abijoux.com/mica-pegmatite-20-5-ct-en.htm https://geologyscience.com/rocks/phyllite/ Pegmatite Phyllite  Amphibole They are characterized by their elongated crystal shapes and typically dark color. Magnesio-hornblende Fibrous Tremolite https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals Actinolite https://www.minerals.net/mineral/actinolite.aspx FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Ferro-hornblende https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Diorite https://www.geologyin.com/2024/03/diorite-composition-properties.html Rocks with Amphibole https://geology.com/rocks/dacite.shtml https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/andesite-facts-geology-of-the-world.html Dacite Andesite  Pyroxene Pyroxene minerals, such as augite and diopside, are common in igneous and some metamorphic rocks. Jeffersonite augite They are typically dark-colored and have a prismatic crystal shape. Fassaite augite Chromium Diopside Violane (Blue diopside) FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geology.com/minerals/diopside.shtml https://geology.com/minerals/augite.shtml https://russian-gems.com/  Rocks with Pyroxene https://explorersweb.com/how-diamonds-reach-the-surface/ Kimberlite https://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/04/marble.html FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Eclogite Marble https://geologyscience.com/rocks/metamorphic-rocks/non-foliated-metamorphic-rocks/eclogite/  Olivine Olivine minerals, such as forsterite and fayalite, are common in mafic and ultramafic igneous Olivine in basalt rocks, such as basalt and peridotite. Olivine is typically green in color and has a granular appearance. Forsterite Fayalite Dark Fayalite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://nationalgemlab.in/forsterite/ https://assignmentpoint.com/fayalite https://www.minerals.net  Rocks with Olivine Dunite https://www.linkedin.com/posts/engineering-geology_dunite-is-an-igneous-rock-that-is-predominantly-activity- 7159772562971877376-7PnC/ FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Gabbro Basalt https://www.smokymountainbeads.com/product-page/peridot-olivine-in-basalt-usa-90100PDT-898-4 https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/1148037/view/olivine-gabbro  Clay minerals Illite Clay minerals, such as kaolinite, montmorillonite, and illite, are common in sedimentary rocks, particularly shales. They have a layered structure and are important components of soil and sediment. Kaolinite Montmorillonite https://geologyscience.com/ FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologicalspecimensupply.com/ https://www.mindat.org/photo-1187265.html  Rocks with Clay https://www.thoughtco.com/shale-rock-4165848 Shale Argillite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Claystone https://www.waketech.edu/about-wake-tech/divisions/mathematics-sciences- engineering/departments/natural-sciences/geology/olg/3 https://geologyscience.com/rocks/sedimentary-rocks/non-clastic-sedimentary-rock/claystone/  Dolomite Carbonates Carbonate minerals, such as calcite, dolomite, and aragonite, are common in sedimentary rocks, particularly limestones and dolostones. https://www.mindat.org/photo-190925.html Colorless Dolomite Aragonite Transparent calcite https://www.allcrystal.com/crystals/dolomite/ FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.minerals.net/ They are known for their characteristic reaction with acids and are important for understanding sedimentary environments and processes. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.shutterstock.com/search/dolostone Limestone Argillite Dolostone Rocks with Carbonates Chalk Caliche https://geologyscience.com/rocks/sedimentary-rocks/chalk/  Hematite (Fe2O3) and Magnetite (Fe3O4) Specular Hematite These iron oxide minerals are common in many types of rocks and are important for their magnetic properties. They can be found in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Magnetite crystals Lodestone Magnetite Oolitic Hematite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.teachersource.com/product/naturally- magnetic-lodestone-magnetite https://geologyscience.com/minerals/magnetite/  Rocks with Iron Oxide Minerals Ironstone Taconite https://www.rocksandminerals4u.com/banded-ironstone.html https://www.vecteezy.com/photo/20823751-piece-of-taconite-stone-isolated FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Basalt Conglomerate https://geologyscience.com/rocks/sedimentary-rocks/conglomerate/  Economic Importance of Rock-Forming Minerals FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  Economic Importance of Rock-Forming Minerals Rock-forming minerals have significant economic importance due to their role in the formation of valuable mineral resources. Many minerals that make up rocks are used as raw materials in various industrial and commercial applications, making them economically valuable. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals  Economic Importance of Rock-Forming Minerals Construction Materials: Many rock-forming minerals, such as quartz, feldspars, mica, and calcite, are used as construction materials. These minerals are abundant and widely distributed, and they are used in the construction industry for various FLORENCE T. SAMONTE purposes, including building stones, https://bedrockinfra.com/what-are-the-novel-trends-in-road-construction-materials-and- concrete aggregates, road road-construction/ https://theconstructor.org/building/aggregates-concrete-american-standards-astm/39552/ construction, and decorative stones. https://www.ideashomegarden.com/architecture/modern-stone-house-in-spain https://citygardeners.co.uk/portfolio/gravel-laying-service-in-woodford-ig9/ https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals  Economic Importance of Rock-Forming Minerals Industrial Minerals: Rock-forming minerals also include a wide range of industrial minerals that are used in various industrial processes. For example, minerals like kaolinite, talc, gypsum, and halite are used in the production of ceramics, paints, FLORENCE T. SAMONTE plastics, fertilizers, and other https://www.webstaurantstore.com/guide/920/different-types-of-plastic.html industrial products. https://organicagproducts.com/organic-farming-systems-101-a-guide-to-organic-fertilizer/ https://ehs.umass.edu/ceramics-safety-arts https://www.acehardware.ph/collections/paints https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals  Economic Importance of Rock-Forming Minerals Energy Resources: Rock-forming minerals are also important in the production of energy resources. For example, coal, which is a sedimentary rock formed from the remains of plant material, is a major source of energy for electricity generation FLORENCE T. SAMONTE and industrial processes. Similarly, https://www.australianresourcesandinvestment.com.au/2022/07/12/is-it-time-for- uranium-to-shine/ minerals like uranium, which is https://shop2702.carlsplace.org/category?name=charcoal%20energy found in certain rocks, are used as fuel in nuclear power plants. https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals  Economic Importance of Rock-Forming Minerals Water Purification: Certain rock-forming minerals, such as zeolites, are used in water purification processes. Zeolites have a unique structure that allows them to adsorb and remove impurities from water, making them valuable in water treatment FLORENCE T. SAMONTE and purification systems. https://www.guano-diffusion.com/en/boutique/zeolite-chabazite/ https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Zeolite-filtration-unit_fig2_319464853 https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals  Economic Importance of Rock-Forming Minerals Gemstones: Some rock-forming minerals, such as diamond, ruby, emerald, and sapphire, are prized for their beauty and rarity and are used as gemstones. These minerals are used in jewelry, fashion accessories, and other luxury FLORENCE T. SAMONTE items, and they have significant https://www.jewellermagazine.com/Article/9766/Apatite-A-touch-of-mystery economic value in the gemstone https://arydpo.com/a-guide-to-the-most-popular-gemstones-used-in-jewelry/ trade. https://ejm.copernicus.org/articles/33/221/2021/ https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals  Economic Importance of Rock-Forming Minerals Metal Ores: Several rock-forming minerals are important sources of metal ores. For example, minerals like hematite, magnetite, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite are commonly found in rocks and are important sources of iron, copper, lead, zinc, and other metals. These minerals are extracted through mining and processed to obtain valuable metals that are used in various industries, including manufacturing, construction, electronics, transportation, and energy production. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Fertilizers: Some rock-forming minerals, such as phosphate minerals, are used in the production of fertilizers for agriculture. Phosphate minerals are a major source of phosphorus, an essential nutrient for plant growth, and are used in fertilizers to enhance crop yields. https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals  Physical Properties of Minerals FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  Physical Properties of Minerals The Physical properties of minerals are used by Mineralogists to help determine the identity of a specimen. Some of the tests can be performed easily in the field, while others require laboratory equipment. ▪ Color ▪ Crystal habit ▪ Luster ▪ Specific Gravity FLORENCE T. SAMONTE ▪ Streak ▪ Transparency ▪ Hardness ▪ Reaction with acid ▪ Cleavage ▪ Tenacity ▪ Fracture ▪ Magnetism  Color The color of a mineral is that seen on its surface by the naked eye. It may depend on the impurities present in light-colored minerals, and one mineral specimen may even show gradation of color or different colors. For these reasons, color is usually a general rather than specific guide to which mineral is present. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www2.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/physprop.htm  Olivine Epidote FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologyscience.com/minerals/olivine/ https://www.geologypage.com/2014/03/epidote.htm l  Color Color is sometimes an extremely diagnostic property of a mineral, for example olivine and epidote are almost always green in color. But, for some minerals it is not at all diagnostic because minerals can take on a variety of colors. These minerals are said to be allochromatic. For example quartz can be clear, white, black, pink, blue, or purple. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www2.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/physprop.htm FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Colors of Quartz  Luster Luster refers to the general appearance of a mineral surface to reflected light. Two general types of luster are designated as follows: ▪ Metallic - looks shiny like a metal. Usually opaque and gives black or dark colored streak. ▪ Non-metallic - Non metallic lusters are referred to as (a) vitreous - looks glassy – (examples: clear quartz, tourmaline) (b) resinous - looks resinous – (examples: sphalerite, sulfur) FLORENCE T. SAMONTE (c) pearly - iridescent pearl-like – (example: apophyllite) (d) greasy - appears to be covered with a thin layer of oil (example: carnallite) (e) silky - looks fibrous. – (examples - some gypsum, serpentine, malachite) (f) adamantine - brilliant luster (example: diamond) https://www2.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/physprop.htm  METALLIC https://rockseeker.com/minerals-with-metallic-luster/ Copper (Metallic) Bornite (Metallic) FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Galena (Metallic) Iron pyrite (Metallic) Pyrrhotite (Metallic)  NON- METALLIC Tourmaline (Glassy) Sphalerite (Resinous) Apophyllite (Pearly) FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Carnalllite (Greasy) Satin Spar Gypsum (Silky) Diamond (Adamantine)  Streak The streak (also called powder color) of a mineral is the color of the powder produced when it is dragged across an un-weathered surface. Typically a piece of unglazed porcelain known as a "streak plate." The streak reveals the true inherent color of the mineral in its powdered form. If no streak appears, then the mineral's streak is said to be white or colorless. Streak is especially important for identifying opaque and colored materials and FLORENCE T. SAMONTE is less useful for silicate minerals, most whereof have a white streak. https://www.geologyin.com/2014/03/the-streak-of-minerals.html  Hardness Hardness is a measure of the mineral’s resistance to scratching. Mohs Hardness Scale assigns a number between 1 and 10 indicating the relative scratch-resistance of minerals when compared to a standardized set of minerals of increasing hardness. Mohs scale was developed by German geologist Fredrick Mohs in the early 20th century. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www2.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/physprop.htm FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.gabrielny.com/blog/what-is-mohs-hardness-scale-and-why-is-it-significant-in-jewelry  Cleavage Cleavage is the property of a mineral that allows it to break smoothly along specific internal planes (called cleavage planes) when the mineral is struck sharply with a hammer. Fracture Fracture is the property of a mineral breaking in a more or less random pattern with no smooth planar surfaces. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.maine.gov/dacf/mgs/education/lessons/act21.pdf https://opengeology.org/historicalgeology/tools-of-historical-geology/earth-materials-mineral-identification/ FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.geologyin.com/2014/03/cleavage-of-minerals.html  Fracture Fracture is the property of a mineral breaking in a more or less random pattern with no smooth planar surfaces. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.maine.gov/dacf/mgs/education/lessons/act21.pdf  FRACTURE DESCRIPTION PATTERN a fracture with smooth, curved surfaces, typically slightly concave, Conchoidal showing concentric undulations resembling the lines of growth of a shell FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Obsidian Chert https://www.reddit.com/r/whatsthisrock/comments/o91s7x/very_hard_and_smooth_ https://www.minerals.net/mineral_glossary/conchoidal.aspx with_conchoidal_fractures/  FRACTURE DESCRIPTION PATTERN Fibrous and splintery similar to the way wood breaks Elpidite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Crocidolite https://galleries.com/minerals/silicate/elpidite/elpidite.jpg https://uclagettyprogram.wordpress.com/2015/07/10/animal-vegetable- mineral/  FRACTURE DESCRIPTION PATTERN Hackly jagged fractures with sharp edges Copper Silver FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.mindat.org/min-1209.html https://mineralexpert.org/article/silver-mineral-element  FRACTURE DESCRIPTION PATTERN Uneven (Irregular) rough irregular surfaces Sodalite Garnet FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.minerals.net/mineral_glossary/uneven_fracture.aspx https://geologyscience.com/minerals/garnet/  Crystal Habit Crystal habit is the tendency for specimens of a mineral to repeatedly grow into characteristic shapes. These shapes are influenced by the atomic structure of the mineral, but they can also be influenced by the environment of crystal growth. Crystal habit is an external shape displayed by an individual crystal, but more often it is an external shape displayed by an aggregate of crystals. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geology.com/minerals/crystal-habit/  Crystal Habit INDIVIDUAL GROUP OF CRYSTALS DISTINCT CRYSTALS Cubic Dendritic Octahedral Reticulated Tabular Radiated Equant Fibrous FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Acicular Botryoidal Prismatic Globular Bladed https://www2.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/physprop.htm Drusy Stellated  Crystal Habit INDIVIDUAL DESCRIPTION CRYSTALS Cubic Cube shapes Octahedral Shaped like octahedrons Tabular Rectangular shapes Equant Boundaries are of approximately equal length FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Acicular Long, slender crystals Prismatic Abundance of prism faces Bladed Like wedge or knife blade https://www2.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/physprop.htm  INDIVIDUAL DESCRIPTION CRYSTALS Cubic Cube shapes Fluorite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Halite https://www.fossilera.com/minerals/3-6-stormy-day-blue-cubic-fluorite-crystal-cluster-sicily-italy https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-cubic-habit-of-a-natural-sample-of-Halite-Wieliczka-Poland-Photo-JM_fig16_308150499  INDIVIDUAL DESCRIPTION CRYSTALS Octahedral Shaped like octahedrons Pyrite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Diamond Crystal https://www.istockphoto.com/photos/octahedral https://borenandkingminerals.com/product/pyrite-octahedral-crystals-from-the-huanzala-mine-2/  INDIVIDUAL DESCRIPTION CRYSTALS Tabular Rectangular shapes FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Barite Wulfenite https://www.minerals.net/Image/13/30/barite.aspx https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=407991288965357&set=gm.3696730757244780&idorvanity=1796038703980671  INDIVIDUAL DESCRIPTION CRYSTALS Grossular Garnet Boundaries are of Equant approximately equal length FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Limestone base Galena https://www.mindat.org/min-1641.html https://www.irocks.com/minerals/specimen/39830  INDIVIDUAL DESCRIPTION CRYSTALS Acicular Long, slender crystals Stibnite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Quartz and calcite base Ulexite https://www.irocks.com/minerals/specimen/35490 https://www.exoticaesoterica.com/magazine/taking-a-stab-at-stibnite  INDIVIDUAL DESCRIPTION CRYSTALS Morganite Prismatic Abundance of prism faces Aquamarine FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Aigue- marine_sur_quartz_et_tourmaline_noire.jpg https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Morganite-crystal-of-rare- elongated-prismatic-habit-65-cm-from-the-Pech-Valley- Kunar_fig15_320182711  INDIVIDUAL CRYSTALS DESCRIPTION Actinolite Bladed Like wedge or knife blade Kyanite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyanite#/media/File:Kyanite_crystals.jpg https://www.mindat.org/min-18.html  Crystal Habit GROUP OF DESCRIPTION DISTINCT CRYSTALS Dendritic Tree-like growth Reticulated Lattice-like groups of slender crystals Radiating Crystals in diverging directions Fibrous Elongated clusters of fibers FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Botryoidal Grouped globular shaped-crystals Globular Spherical crystals Drusy Small crystals that cover a surface https://www2.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/physprop.htm Stellated Star-like shaped radiating individuals  GROUP OF DESCRIPTION DISTINCT CRYSTALS Dendritic Tree-like growth Silver Manganese Dentrites FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.mineralauctions.com/items/large-dendritic-silver-in-quartz-excellent- soregaroli-coll-53136 https://www.mindat.org/gm/26645  GROUP OF DESCRIPTION DISTINCT CRYSTALS Reticulated Lattice-like groups of slender crystals Cerussite Rutile FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://museum.wales/mineralogy-of-wales/database/?mineral=176&name=Cerussite https://www.mindat.org/min-3486.html  GROUP OF DESCRIPTION DISTINCT CRYSTALS Radiating Crystals in diverging directions Wavellite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Pyrophyllite https://www.capeminerals.co.za/crystal-habits https://www.geologypage.com/2014/07/pyrophyllite.html  GROUP OF DESCRIPTION DISTINCT CRYSTALS Fibrous Elongated clusters of fibers Chrysotile FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Serpentine https://www.capeminerals.co.za/crystal-habits https://www.mindat.org/photo-378392.html  GROUP OF DESCRIPTION DISTINCT CRYSTALS Botryoidal Smooth globular shapes Agate FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Hemimorphite https://geologyscience.com/gemstone/botryoidal-agate/ https://www.fossilera.com/minerals/3-3-electric-blue-botryoidal-hemimorphite-china  GROUP OF DESCRIPTION DISTINCT CRYSTALS Globular Spherical crystals Gyrolite Cookeite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.fabreminerals.com/LargePhoto.php?FILE=FX64M0f.jpg&LANG=ES https://www.capeminerals.co.za/crystal-habits  GROUP OF DESCRIPTION DISTINCT CRYSTALS Drusy Small crystals that cover a surface Quartz FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Pyrite https://www.geologyin.com/2018/04/what-is-druzy-and-how-does-it-form.html https://www.geologyin.com/2018/04/what-is-druzy-and-how-does-it-form.html  GROUP OF DESCRIPTION DISTINCT CRYSTALS Stellated Star-like shaped radiating individuals FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Astrophyllite Pyrophyllite https://www.geologyin.com/2017/06/wonderfull-group-of-orange-crystals-of.html https://www.mindat.org/gm/3323  GROUP OF DESCRIPTION DISTINCT CRYSTALS Plumose having feathery appearance Muscovite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Pyrolusite https://www.mindat.org/gl/252845 https://www.capeminerals.co.za/crystal-habits  GROUP OF DESCRIPTION DISTINCT CRYSTALS Hopper resembling a miniature staircase or pyramid Halite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Bismuth https://www.geologyin.com/2019/10/crystal-habits-and-forms.html https://www.capeminerals.co.za/crystal-habits  GROUP OF DESCRIPTION DISTINCT CRYSTALS Bladed crystals are elongated and flattened Kyanite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Calcite https://www.geologypage.com/2014/05/kyanite.html https://www.capeminerals.co.za/crystal-habits  Specific Gravity Specific gravity is the ratio of density of mineral to the density of water. In general, if a mineral has higher atomic number cations it has a higher specific gravity. https://www2.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/physprop.htm Table 1 –Specific Gravities of some carbonate minerals Table 2 – Indication of Specific Gravities of Minerals Specific Gravity Indication < 2.0 Light 2.0 – 4.5 FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Average > 4.5 Heavy https://www2.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/physprop.htm https://www.minerals.net/resource/property/specificgravity FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://louisvillefossils.blogspot.com/2011/02/determining-specific-gravity-of.html  Transparency Transparency is a measure of how clearly an object can be seen through a crystal. Degrees of transparency Transparent an object is seen clearly through the crystal Translucent an object cannot be seen, but light is transmitted through the crystal Opaque no light is transmitted; this includes all metallic minerals FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  Transparent Iceland Spar Translucent Fluorite https://mineralexpert.org/article/cinnabar-mercury-sulfide-mineral-ore https://www.minerals.net/mineral/iceland_spar.aspx Opaque Cinnabar FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.fossilera.com/minerals/  Reaction with Acid To most geologists, the term "acid test" means placing a drop of dilute (5% to 10%) hydrochloric acid on a rock or mineral and watching for bubbles of carbon dioxide gas to be released. The bubbles signal the presence of carbonate minerals such as calcite, dolomite, or one of the minerals listed in the Table 1. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geology.com/minerals/acid-test.shtml  Tenacity Tenacity is the resistance of a mineral to breaking, crushing, or bending. Tenacity can be described by the following terms. Brittle - Breaks or powders easily. Malleable - can be hammered into thin sheets. Sectile - can be cut into thin shavings with a knife. Ductile - bends easily and does not return to its original shape. Flexible - bends somewhat and does not return to its original shape. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Elastic - can be bent, and when released springs back to its original shape https://www2.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/physprop.htm  Brittle Brittle Brittle Quartz Quartz Feldspar https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/benefits-quartz-powder-prince-kumar-hiran/ https://www.allcrystal.com/crystals/feldspar/ Ductile Copper FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geology.com/minerals/copper.shtml  Malleable Gold https://www.lillicoco.com/blogs/love-lillicoco-blog/a-history-of-gold Flexible Molybdenite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/molybdenite  Sectile Talc https://www.chemistryworld.com/podcasts/talc-magnesium-silicate Elastic Mica FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.chemistryworld.com/podcasts/talc-magnesium-silicate  Magnetism Magnetism is the characteristic that allows a mineral to attract or repel other magnetic materials. https://www.rocksandminerals4u.com/properties_of_minerals.html Several minerals react when placed within a magnetic field. Some minerals are strongly attracted to the magnet, others are weakly attracted Some mineral ares actually repelled. Some minerals are attracted to magnetic fields only when heated. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE A magnetic field is an area encompassing a magnet or electrical current that has the ability to attract or repel certain objects placed in the field. The closer the object is to the magnet or electrical current, the more powerful the magnetic effect. https://www.minerals.net/resource/property/magnetic.aspx  Magnetism Ferromagnetism describes strong attraction to magnetic fields. This property is exhibited in few minerals, notably Magnetite and Pyrrhotite. https://www.rocksandminerals4u.com/properties_of_minerals.html Magnetite Chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/40110191056393 https://www.mountpolley.com/magnetite-and-magnetite- https://www.mindat.or 7932/ mining-in-canada/ g/mesg-495767.html  Franklinite https://www.minerals.net/mineral/franklinite.aspx Magnetism Paramagnetism is weak attraction to Hematite magnetic fields. The attraction is usually discernible, but it may be so weak that it is undetectable. Most paramagnetic minerals become strongly magnetic when heated. A small number of paramagnetic minerals, such as Platinum, are not Platinum essentially paramagnetic, but contain iron FLORENCE T. SAMONTE impurities which are responsible for the paramagnetism. Some examples of paramagnetic minerals are Hematite and Franklinite. https://www.rocksandminerals4u.com/properties_of_minerals.html https://www.thenaturalsapphirecompany.com/education/precio  Magnetism Diamagnetism. Only one mineral, Bismuth, is diamagnetic, meaning it is repelled from magnetic fields. https://www.rocksandminerals4u.com/properties_of_minerals.html FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.minerals.net/mineral/bismuth.aspx  Magnetism Magnetism. Only a variety of one mineral acts as a magnet, generating magnetic fields on its own. This mineral is Lodestone, the magnetic variety of Magnetite, which found in only a few deposits throughout the world. Although it is only weakly magnetic, its magnetism is definitely discernible. https://www.rocksandminerals4u.com/properties_of_minerals.html FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.desertcart.in/products/14530031-naturally-magnetic-lodestone-magnetite  Ore-forming Minerals FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  Ore-forming Minerals Ore minerals are naturally occurring minerals that contain valuable elements or minerals in sufficient quantities to be economically mined and processed for their desired metal or mineral content. These minerals are typically extracted from the Earth’s crust and processed to obtain the valuable elements or minerals for various industrial, manufacturing, and commercial purposes. Ore minerals are the source of most of the world’s metals and minerals, which are critical for modern society and economic development. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologyscience.com/geology/ore-minerals  Economic Importance of Ore-Forming Minerals Metal and mineral production: Ore minerals are the primary source of most of the Platinum Iron Gold Silver Copper Aluminum world’s metals and minerals, which are essential for modern society and economic development. Metals such as iron, copper, aluminum, gold, silver, and platinum are used in various industries, including construction, manufacturing, transportation, electronics, energy production, and many others. Minerals such as FLORENCE T. SAMONTE phosphates, potash, and sulfur are vital for agriculture and fertilizer production. Without ore minerals, many https://capital.com/iron-ore-price-forecast https://www.thenaturalsapphirecompany.com/ed https://geologyscience.com/geology/the-top- https://geologyscience.com/ore-minerals/silver-ore/ https://geology.com/minerals/copper.shtml https://geologyscience.com/rocks/bauxite/ industries and sectors of the global economy would be ucation/precious-metal-mining-refining- 10-most-valuable-minerals-found-on- techniques/platinum-mining-refining/ earth/#3_Gold severely impacted or unable to function. https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals  Economic Importance of Ore-Forming Minerals Job creation and economic growth: The mining and processing of ore minerals contribute to the creation of employment opportunities and economic growth in many regions around the world. Mining operations require a workforce for exploration, extraction, processing, transportation, and other activities, providing jobs and livelihoods to millions of people. Additionally, the revenue generated from the extraction and sale of ore minerals contributes to local, national, and global economies through taxes, royalties, and export earnings. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals  Economic Importance of Ore-Forming Minerals Supply chain for manufacturing and production: Ore minerals are a critical component of the global supply chain for manufacturing and production. Many industries rely on a stable and reliable supply of ore minerals to produce goods and products. For example, the automotive industry relies on metals such as steel, aluminum, and copper for vehicle manufacturing, while the electronics industry relies on metals like gold, silver, and rare earth elements for the production of electronic devices. Any disruption in the supply of ore minerals can have significant impacts on global manufacturing and production processes. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals  Economic Importance of Ore-Forming Minerals Infrastructure development: Ore minerals are essential for building infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, buildings, and other structures. Metals like steel and aluminum are used extensively in construction and infrastructure development, while minerals like cement, gypsum, and aggregates are critical for concrete production. Ore minerals are thus fundamental to the development and expansion of modern infrastructure, which is crucial for economic growth and societal well-being. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals  Economic Importance of Ore-Forming Minerals Technological innovation: Many technological advancements and innovations Silicon Silver depend on the availability of ore minerals. For example, renewable energy technologies such as solar panels and wind turbines require metals like silicon, silver, and rare earth elements. Advanced technologies in electronics, telecommunications, aerospace, and defense industries also rely on a stable supply of ore FLORENCE T. SAMONTE minerals for their production. The availability of ore minerals is therefore vital for driving technological https://www.mindat.org/min-3659.html https://geologyscience.com/ore-minerals/silver-ore/ innovation and advancements in various sectors. https://geologyscience.com/geology/rock-forming-minerals FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Thank You