Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology PDF

CHAPTER: 1 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Discovering Psychology  Psychology Definition Psychology is the scientific Study of behavior and mental processes. Behavior (what people do as actions and reactions to stimuli) Ment...

CHAPTER: 1 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Discovering Psychology  Psychology Definition Psychology is the scientific Study of behavior and mental processes. Behavior (what people do as actions and reactions to stimuli) Mental processes( think, feel, perceive, reason, remember and biological activities) and how they (behavior and mental processes) are affected by: 1- an organism. 1.1 physical state. 1.2 affective state. 1.3 and mental state 2- and external environment. Psychology Scientifically describes, predicts and explains human behavior and mental processes. It aims at changing and improving People’s lives.  Psychology Fields Psychology generally fall into two categories: Basic psychology: the study of psychological issues to find out about rules and principles governing behavior. Applied Psychology: the study of psychological issues that have direct practical significance and the application of psychological findings. Some subfields of psychology: Experimental psychology: conduct laboratory studies of learning , motivation, emotions, sensation and perception, physiology, human performance, and cognition. Health Psychology: help people to deal with health problems due to psychological factors. (blood pressures, heart problems, ulcers etc….) Clinical Psychology: diagnose, treat and study mental or emotional problems and disabilities. Counseling Psychology: help people deal with everyday life problems. Educational psychology: study psychological principles that explain learning and search for ways to improve learning in educational systems. Their interests range from the application of findings on memory and thinking to the uses of rewards to encourage achievement.  School psychology: work with parents, teachers, and students to enhance students’ performance and emotional development. Developmental psychology: study how people change and grow over time, physically, mentally, and socially. Psychometric psychology: design and evaluate tests of mental abilities, attitudes, interests, and personality Social psychology: study how groups, institutions, and the social context influence individuals and vice versa. Among their interests are conformity, obedience, competition, cooperation, leadership styles, group decision making, and prejudice. Industrial / organizational psychology: study behavior in the workplace. It is concerned with group decision making, employee morale, work motivation, productivity, job stress, job satisfaction, personnel selection, marketing strategies, and equipment design, and many other issues.  History of Psychology Thinkers and philosophers in the past have tried to understand people’s behavior and mental processes. They did not however use empirical evidence. Empirical: relying on or derived from observation, experimentation, or measurement. Many pioneers contributed to psychology (such as John Locke, in England). Wilhem Wundt (1832-1929) established the first laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. He studied sensation, perception, reaction times, imagery, and attention. He used a method called introspection. Introspection is a form of self-observation in which individuals examine and report contents of their own consciousness.  Early Developments of Psychology Structuralism ( Developed by Tichener (1867-1927), a student of Wundt). It is early psychological approach that stressed analysis of immediate experience into basic elements (of behavior). The approach relied heavily on introspection. Functionalism: An early psychological approach that stressed the function or purpose of behavior and consciousness (W. James), & what psychologists benefited from C. Darwin).  Today’s Perspectives in Psychology Perspectives refer to different kinds of explanations, assumptions, and questions asked about human behavior. The Psychodynamic perspective: emphasizes on unconscious dynamics within the individual, such as inner forces, conflicts, or the movement of instinctual energy. (Freud is the creator of this approach). Behavioral Perspective: emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior. (pioneers: J. Watson, E. Pavlov & B.F. Skinner). The Humanistic Perspective: believes in the will power of humans. All individuals naturally strive to grow, develop and be in control of their lives and behavior. (Abraham Maslow) The cognitive Perspective: emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior. How people think, understand, and know about the world. (pioneers :Ellis, Neisser, Piaget Bruner, Chomsky ).  Social Learning theory (or cognitive social learning theory): propagates the idea that behavior is learned and maintained through observation and imitation of others, position consequences, and cognitive processes such as plans and expectations. (proponent R. Bandura). Neuroscience perspective: views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions (Pioneer: Wilhelm Wundt ). It emphasizes body events and changes associated with actions, feelings, and thoughts.  Research in Psychology Psychologists use the scientific approach in studying human behavior. The approach used by psychologists to systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest. It is done in steps: 1. Identifying questions of interest 2. Formulating an explanation (s). Hypotheses & Theories. 3. Carry research to support or refute the explanation(s). 4. Communication of the findings.  Characteristics of science 1. Precision: Scientists use specific precise ways to prove or explain a phenomenon. They formulate explanations that can be tested. These are called Hypotheses. They are derived from theories or observations. 2- Skepticism: means accepting new or old conclusions with caution. 3. Reliance on empirical evidence: scientific theories and hypotheses are judged to be true or acceptable if they are backed (supported) by evidence. The evidence for a scientific idea must be empirical, that is, based on systematic observation. 4- Willingness to make “risky predictions’: the scientist must state an idea in such a way that it can be refuted, or disproved by use of the principle of falsifiability, It means that a scientific theory must make predictions that are specific enough to expose the theory to the possibility of disconfirmation 5. Openness: Scientists must be willing to tell others where they got their ideas, how they tested them, and what the results were. They must do this clearly and in detail so that other scientists can repeat, or replicate, their studies and verify the findings.  Descriptive Research in Psychology Description methods give descriptions of behavior to explain behavior without intervening. Archival Research: The psychologist looks into existing data, documents, census, records (medical, school, newspapers etc..) to test hypotheses. Naturalistic Observation (Observational Studies): the researcher carefully and systematically observes and records behavior without interfering with it (does not make any change in the situation). Survey Research: Asking a representative sample of people questions about their behavior, thoughts, and attitudes. Case Studies: is in-depth study (a detailed description) of an individual: studying anything that will increase insight in the individual’s behavior. by observation or formal psychological testing. Correlational Research: Looks at the relationship between two variables (how one changes as the other does). The correlation could be positive or negative. Tests: are procedures used to measure and evaluate personality traits, emotional state, aptitudes, interests, abilities and values.  Experimental Research in Psychology This method tries to find explanations by controlling the situation by experimental manipulation. The experimenter deliberately changes one variable to observe the effects on another variable. Elements of Experimentation: Treatment: the manipulation don by the experimenter. Experimental Group: The group which receives the treatment in the experiment. Control Group: the one does not receive the treatment. Independent Variable: The one manipulated by the experimenter to effect another. Dependent Variable: the one that is affected (change as a consequence) to another (independent). For example, testing the effects of a new version of a football videogame (Independent Variable) on self-esteem (Dependent Variable). The researcher will randomly divide the sample (the players) into two groups, the first group playing the new version of the videogame (Experimental group), the second group playing with the old version they have been playing (control group). After each group played their assigned game for a period of time, if the experimental group subjects' self-esteem improved significantly more than the control group subjects, we can say that the new version of the game effectively improves self-esteem.