Chapter 13 WHAP Notes PDF

The following assignment must include NOTES, HIGHLIGHTS, and SUMMARIES related to the chapter (see details below). Chapter 13 Title: Political Transformations - Empires and Encounters *SUMMARIES/COMMENTS: *NOTES: Label all Head...

The following assignment must include NOTES, HIGHLIGHTS, and SUMMARIES related to the chapter (see details below). Chapter 13 Title: Political Transformations - Empires and Encounters *SUMMARIES/COMMENTS: *NOTES: Label all Headings and Subheadings from the chapter. Write a brief summary after Notes must also be written using your own words. Click HERE for each Heading (3-6 sentences). more information on recommended Note-taking strategies. You may also use the space below to personalize your *HIGHLIGHTS: Identify SPICE-T Themes throughout your notes. notes (eg, vocabulary, Highlight each theme using the following colors Social, Political, commentary, connections, Interactions with the Environment, Culture, Economics, images, etc.) Technology Summary I: This first section I. European Empires in the Americas was about the European Western Europeans conquered regions from empire's slow expansion into the ocean to the imperial heartland. the Americas. It covered Voyages of Columbus → Spanish focused on numerous aspects empire building in the Caribbean; Early 16th connected with European century went to the mainland (Aztec and conquests, like the Great Inca) Dying that devastated Portugueses in present-day Brazil. Native American Early 17th century: British, French, and Dutch populations. Then the Little colonial settlements started along the eastern Ice Age, which impacted coast of North America. several regions. Additionally, Europeans expanded their empires to contain the Columbian Exchange most Americans, in name by the 18th century. involved sharing of diverse A. The European Advantage ideas and cultures that were European-American empires (Portugal, Spain, traded in the Americas as Britain, and France) on the Atlantic rim of Europeans arrived to Europe were closer to the Americas than Asia conquer. → had geological advantages. Winds of the Atlantic went slowly in the same direction. ○ Different from the changing, monsoon winds of the Indian Ocean. European technologies: Mapmaking, navigation, sailing techniques, and ship design (based on the Mediterranean, Indian ocean, and Chinese regions) ---> open up the Atlantic Ocean. After 1200: European elites realized their marginal position in the world of Eurasian commerce and wanted to gain access there. European Exploration Motivations: ○ America's discovery: Abundance of natural resources, agricultural lands → further expansion/long-term growth of European economy in the 19th-20th century. ○ Rulers motivated by lasting rivalries of competing states. Independent/developing merchant class in commercializing Europe wanted direct access to Asian wealth instead of Muslim intermediaries. ○ Poor nobles/commoners found ways to get rich & status in colonies. ○ Missionaries were encouraged by crusading zeal (passionate knights fighting in the Crusades) to expand the realm of Christendom. Highlighted in red = ○ Persecuted minorities (treated unfairly important terms due to race/religion/beliefs) wanted a new start in life. Unknown Terms: ○ Overall these motivations pushed Spaniard: From Spain or has Euporeans to expand in the Americas, Spanish ancestry. “We came here to serve God and the Tlaxcalans: Someone from King, and also to get rich.” the Mexican state of ○ Seafaring technology (Chinese & Tlaxcala. Islamic) allowed them to cross the Great Dying: When most of Atlantic easily the population of Native ○ Ironworking, gunpowder weapons, & Americans declined in the horses were new to the Americas, but Americas due to the diseases people eventually used them. brought. Local divisions provided European invaders Little Ice Age with allies. General Crisis People of the Aztec Empire resented Mexica Mazie skyrocketing: Quick domination → willingly joined Hernan Cortes in spread and importance of the Spanish invasion of that empire. maize (corn) after it The final attack on Tenochtitlan (Aztec originated in Europe/other capital): Cortes forces had less than 1,000 parts of the world during the Spaniards and several times the number of Columbian Exchange. It was Tlaxcalans. a staple crop, increasing After defeat: 10,000 Aztecs joined Cortes as he food production and built the Spanish Mesoamerican empire, population growth. bigger than the Aztecs. Granaries: Storage buildings/ Spanish military victories depended on structures used to store alliances with local people, they made up harvested crops & grains. This most of their conquering forces. helps protect the crops & European advantage: Germs/diseases. grains from moisture, pests, ○ Native Americans had no awareness of and spoilage. Making sure it this. lasted through non havert ○ This killed society after society. seasons. ○ Caribbean, Virginia, and New England: Bullion: Gold/silver in bulk Growing immigrant populations & before coining, or valued by declining natives led to more Europeans weight. than locals within a few decades. Protestant: Different type of B. The Great Dying and the Little Ice Age Christianity than Catholic. Several factors affected the Europeans taking Didn’t follow the Pope, and control of empires in the Americas → global they had different ideas significance. about how church and Most people lived in Mesoamerica & Andean society should work. zones, overlooked by the Aztec and Inca empires. Isolated from Afro-Eurasian without many domesticated animals → no immunity to Old World diseases like smallpox, measles, malaria, etc. ○ When Native American people came into reach with these European/African  diseases, they died (~90%). Densely-populated Caribbean islands were gone within 50 years of Columbus's coming. ○ Central Mexico ~10-20 million before Spanish conquest → ~ 1 million by 1650. ○ Many died from the plague, hunger, etc. Similar situation in Dutch & British regions of North America. ○ A Dutch observer in New Netherland (later New York) in 1656 stated that the Indians said that before the Christians came and smallpox spread, their population was ten times larger, but the disease killed nine-tenths. The Great Dying happened next to another natural event called the Little Ice Age. Little Ice Age: Abnormally cool temperatures ~ early modern period mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. ○ Scholars are unsure of its causes. ○ Maybe due to a low point in sunspot activity → less intense solar irritation of the earth. ○ Volcanic eruptions. Ash/gasses blocked the sun's heating energy in the upper atmosphere. Some scientists have connected the Little Ice Age to the demographic collapse in the Americas. ○ This led to shorter growing seasons, harsher weather conditions, and impacted food production in regions. The Little Ice Age has different effects in different regions. ○ Mid-17th century: Reached its peak → scholars called this the General Crisis. ○ China, Europe, and North America experienced extremely cold winters. ○ Regions near the equator (tropics & southern hemisphere) underwent extreme conditions and unstable rainfall → growth in the Sahara Desert. ○ Wet/cold summers declined harvests significantly in Europe. While severe droughts ruined crops in several regions. ○ China suffered the most from the drought through 1637-1641. ○ This led to other problems like widespread starvation, epidemics,  uprisings, and wars. ○ Eurasia: The Ming dynasty collapse in China, European wars, and Mughal India's civil war occurred during the General Crisis. Settled down when better weather came in the 18th century. ○ Central Mexico, heartland of the Aztec Empire, and the center of Spanish colonial: Had a severe drought 1639-1644 brought prices up of mazie skyrocketing, left granaries empty and several without water. Mexico was unsuccessful when declaring independence from Spain. ○ Our Lady of Guadalupe was believed to bring rain. ○ The Caribbean region in the 1640s had too much rain from El Nino weather. This caused mosquitoes to appear that contained yellow fever and malaria. ○ Overall, similar to the Great Dying, the General Crisis shows how important a role the climate -plate plays in human history. C. The Columbian Exchange Great dying & Little Ice Age → severe labor shortage, made space for immigrant newcomers (Europeans/enslaved Africans). Several centuries of Colonial Era and beyond: the European and African people created new societies in the Americas. ○ Replacing the different cultures that thrived before 1492. Colonial societies (Europeans and Africans) brought germs, their people, plants & animals to the Americas. ○ Pants: wheat, rice, sugarcane, grapes, garden vegetables, fruits, & many weeds → changed landscape & European diet. ○ Animals: Hores, pigs, cattle, goats, sheep → multiplied quickly due to no predators. ○ Made ranching economies and cowboy cultures of North and South America. ○ Horses changed many Native American  societies. ○ North American West: Settled farming people(Pawnee) left their farms to hunt bison on horseback. ○ Women lost their role as food producers as a male-dominated hunting/ warrior culture appeared. Places Europe Africa Asia American plants Corn, potatoes & Corn, potatoes & Corn, potatoes & that had a cassava cassava cassava major influence Impact Provided a source Provided a source Provided a source of food for of food for of food for thousands in the thousands in the thousands in the modern era. modern era. modern era. Helped push the Corn was used as China: Corn, population from 60 cheap food for the peanuts, and million in 1400 to cargoes of the sweet potatoes 390 million in 1900 transatlantic trade. were mainly from supplemented with corn/potatoes. Scholars say that rice and wheat to corn, peanuts, and feed China’s Cheap and cassava helped modern nutritious food for some Africans population. By the millions of industrial grow and 20th century, food workers. balanced the plants from the population loss Americas Ireland's from the slave accounted for population trade. about 20% of total immensely grew Chinese food due to potatoes. Tobacco and production. However, an chocolate were in airborne fungus use by the 17th Tobacco and (from Americas) century. chocolate were in destroyed crops in use by the 17th the mid-19th century. century, leading the Irish to How to book on starvation or smoking emigration. techniques. Tobacco and Tea from China & chocolate were in coffee from the use by the 17th Islamic world century. spread → worldwide biological exchange. Silver mines of Mexico & Peru → transatlantic trade and transpacific commerce. ○ This caused Spain to not take over Europe, instead, they bought Chinese tea, silk, and porcelain (high value). Plantation owners found workers in Africa. Altainc Slave Trade: brought workers, sugar, and cotton trade. ○ This creates a lasting link among Africa, Europe, and the Americas → disorganized  people of African origin throughout the Western Hemisphere. Columbian exchange: Huge network of communication, migration, trade diseases, and transfer of plants/animals from the European colonial empire in the Americas. ○ “Two worlds” (Eastern and Western hemisphere) were connected through this. Atlantic network: Western Europeans were dominant in the Atlantic world and got good benefits. ○ New knowledge from colonies led to the Scientific Revolution in Europe. ○ Wealth from colonies (valuable metals, crops, slave labor, profits) supported Europe’s Industrial Revolution. ○ Colonies gave resources, markets, and land for Europe’s growing population. ○ This expansion moved global power, placing Europe above Asia in wealth & influence. Summary II: II. Comparing Colonial Societies in the Americas Europeans found an “old world” in the Americas but This section talked about the created a “new world” through their actions and different colonies that came colonization. after the European Their empires built entirely new societies by removing conquests in the Americas. Native populations from their land → established An important colony among European & African people, cultures, plants, and this was made the land of animals. Aztecs and Incas. These were Mercantilism: European empires used an economic some of the first groups theory where their governments got wealthy through formed and helped to the exporting precious metals (silver and gold) and idea of mixed-race collecting bullion, this was seen as a “national populations. As well as prosperity”. sugar-based colonies, Colonies opened close markets for manufactured highlighting their importance goods, sometimes providing bullion. in the making of slave labor EarlyMorden Era: Caused European wars and and the differences between colonial rivalries these colonies and colonies ○ Mainly in Spanish America, the theory was in North America. Lastly, it ignored. talks about settler colonies in ○ Spain didn’t sell many goods; Spanish colonists the North American region, traded with rival countries by piracy & how Europeans expanded smuggling. and stabilized their power Similarities & differences between colonial world in there. western hemisphere Similarities: ○ Shared the factor of being in European control & influence. ○ Each colony was based on a certain culture /economic interests of the European nation  that colonized it. Differences: ○ Spain = semi-feudal & Catholic (more traditional) ; England = more progressive and Protestant (experimenting with new ways of thinking). ○ Economies different: some colonies had settler-based agriculture; others had slave plantations, ranching, or mining. ○ Mesoamerica: Urbanized & heavily populated. ○ Andes: Rural, not very populated. Men and Women had different lives in the colonies. Crown rule/Spanish crown: ○ Native American/enslaved African women Authority/governance from were often traded to new colonial settlers. the Spanish monarchy over ○ Cortes got an alliance with Talxcaca against its regions. the Aztecs as a gift he got 100s of women Aristocracy: Highest class in slaves & 8 daughters of the Talxacn family who some societies. he gave to these soldiers. After conquest: Many men married elite naive women considered traditional. ○ Was sometimes beneficial for women. One Aztecs daughter land received a huge area of land. ○ Below elite level: Women dealt with sexual violence, abuse, rape. ○ Had to perform sexual activities for European empires. Humiliated and was a tragedy for native & enslaved men who couldn't protect the women. A. In the Land of the Aztecs and the Incas Early 1500s: Spain conquered the rich and highly populated Aztec & Inca empires → control over Mexico and Peru. Within a century Spain had established major cities, universities, cathedrals, and a complex government & trade network within these regions. The colonial economy focused on farming and silver/gold mining. Native peoples were forced to do labor work. Encomienda system: Spanish Crown gave some Spanish settlers native people (could get work, gold, agricultural produce) for “protection” & Christian teachings. ○ Became abusive: started turning into slavery; replaced by repartition to this had more Crown control. By the 1600s the Hacienda system allowed for  owners of large estates to directly employ native workers with low wages and high debts. Their social hierarchy was based on the Spanish class & gender. ○ Accommodated racially/culturally different Indains/Aficans and the increasing number of racially mixed people. Spanish settlers saw themselves superior in the colonies and wanted aristocracy. Men (Spanish setters) in the colonies believed they should have an independent government. Settlers resisted strict Crown rule, “I obey but I do not enforce.” Minority Spanish people ∼ 20% were divided. descendants of the original conquistadors wanted to preserve their privileges. Spaniards born in the Americas (Creoles) felt superior to people born in Spain (peninsulares); Women = inferior & unable to have a position in public office, since they were viewed as weak and needed men for protection. Women were viewed as "bearers of civilization" because their role passed on male riches, dignity, and status. Men believed that there were few women. Mexico & Peru: New colonial communities were set apart by the arrival of mestizos (mixed-race people) ; they were categorized into castas (castes) depending on their skin color and racial heritage. Mestizos, (mainly Hispanic in culture) despised by the Spanish because they were primarily the result of unsuitable unions. ○ But due to their economic power & significance, → recognized as a separate social group. ○ Indigenous people, or "Indians," = bottom of Mexican/Peruvian colonial societies. In the colonial lands of Inca/Aztec empires, Spanish, Mestizo, and Indians represented important social categories. ○ African slaves & freemen = less common; they were traumatized by the Great Dying, & forced to work as the main labor force, and forced to pay tribute to Spanish overlords.  ○ Many converted to Spanish culture, but several indigenous aspects stayed. B. Colonies of Sugar Brazil: Other different colonial societies emerged in lowland areas. Sugar = medicine, spice, sweetener, preservative & decoration in sculptured forms (Europe had a high demand for sugar) ○ Colonies that focused on sugar for mainly export; importing their food and other necessities. Europeans took techniques from Arabs First modern industry: Produced for an international/wideparead market. ○ However, they had hard/a lot of slave labor Since no Native Americans were around → Europeans used Africa & Atlantic slave trade as an another workforce ○ Sugar production: Slaves had horrible working conditions ○ Unhealthy conditions and diseases = high death rates; leading to plantation owners to constantly import new slaves ○ Male slaves = better than female slaves (gender imbalances) ○ Practical use of African slaves provided plantation colonies with different ethnic/racial groups than highland Spanish America Spanish America had lots of racial mixing happening in Brazil. Mulattoes: product of Portuguese-African unions predominated. Complex plantations (Americas) extended to southern colonies of British North America. ○ Tobacco, cotton, rice, indigo = important crops. Plantation colonies had different social outcomes than farther south Strongly defined racial system (black Africans, “red” Native Americans, white Europeans) evolved in North America. Portuguese/Spanish colonies acknowledged wide variety of mixed-race groups In North America, Slavery was different than in sugar colonies. Slaves in the US could reproduce themselves, by the time of the Civil War most North  American slaves were born into the New World. In Brazil more slaves were willingly set free by owners than in North America. ○ Free blacks/mulattoes in Brazil had more economic opportunities Colonial Brazil had different racism than North America. ○ North America: anyone with African ancestry was thought as “black” ○ Brazil: anyone of African/non-African ancestry was not black but in a other mixed-race category Racial prejudice still existed; white traits = prized, & white people had greater privileges/opportunities than other skin color in Brazil & Latin Americas. Views of color changed along with the educational/economic standing of the people. C. Settler Colonies in North America Another colonial society came in northern British colonies of New England, New York and Pennsylvania The British were the last of European powers to establish colonies, so they got “leftovers”. British settlers came from more quickly changing society than settlers from Catholic, semi-feudal, authoritarian Spain Brought much of the English culture, many settlers wanted to escape aspects of old European society and not recreate it. Men (Puritan New England) became independent heads of family farms unlike Old England. ○ If men escaped class restrictions of old country, → women were less likely to avoid the gender limitations British settlers were more numerous than Spanish counterparts Slaves weren’t needed in the agricultural economy, this was taken over by small-scale independent farmers working their own land. Protestant England didn't want to spreading Christianity compared to missionary societies of Catholic Spain greater mass literacy in North America than in Latin America British settler colonies practiced traditions of  local self-government compared to Latin America Although Britain didn't have an elaborate imperial bureaucracy that governed Spanish colonies (for several years), huge centers of wealth, power, commerce and innovation were in Mesoamerica and Andes. This continued in most of the colonial era. ○ Spanish/Portuguese colonies were more fortunate compared to British/French. 19th-20th centuries; “Leftovers” in the US became more politically stable, democratic, economically successful, and internationally power than divided, unstable and less prosperous Latin America Summary III: III. The Steppes and Siberia: The Making of a Russian Empire While Western Europeans were building empires in This section focuses on the Americas, Russian Empire (which became world’s developing European largest state) began to from colonies and the start of the Moscow (small city in Russian state) took over several Russian Empire in Moscow. It neighboring Russian-speaking cities and they were explains the reasons behind apart of the expanding territory the rise of the Russian Empire Over the next 3 centuries: Russians took over the and its effect on the nearby tundra, forests, grasslands of northern Asia, & Pacific populations, especially the Ocean. Also expanded westward, → numerous new nomadic peoples who were people to empire deeply affected by this First focused on grasslands south & east of Russian development. Lastly, it talks heartland, (nomadic pastoral peoples lived here) about the Russian Empire Security = problem, people raided agricultural and the Ottoman Empire. Russian neighbors & sold most to slavery. Moreover, how Russia In the east, there were no threats due to endless positioned itself in association forests/tundra. to Western Europe. Empire building was a long process, involving many people. The empire provided opportunities for economic/social improvements for Russian migrants. A. Experiencing the Russian Empire Russian military (based in modern weaponry/organizational capacity of a state) brought steppes and Siberia under their control Russian authorities everywhere required an oath of allegiance from native people. Yasak (tribute) paid in cash or in kind was demanded. Similar to the Americas, epidemics came with conquest, mainly in distant regions of Siberia. ○ Local people had less immunity to  smallpox/measles. Conquest = pressure to convert to Christianity Russians offered tax breaks, (instead of paying tribute)promise of land/cash in return to convert to Christianity Although they didn't, Spanish authorities heavily pursued conversion. Though (Catherine the Great established religious tolerance for Muslims) Russian Empire’s best changing factor was the arrival of Russian settlers ○ They were more than native peoples, putting out a different Russian character Loss of hunting grounds/pasturelands to Russian agricultural settlers undermined long-standing economies Also rendered local people dependent on Russian markets for multiple resources Nomadic people were forced to leave their ways with requirement to pay fees and obtain permission to cross agricultural lands Mixed-race babies were considered Russian. Next 3 centuries: Siberia & steppes were a part of the Russian state. Native peoples still stayed in Russia, and didn't move to America. Russified: Several were Russified, using Russian language & becoming Christian. B. Russians and Empire The conquered people and empire changed. Due to the multiethnic empire, the number of Russians went down compared to the overall population. But stayed politically dominant Slavic-speaking Ukranians/Belorussians predominated Regions of Siberia/steppes had several different peoples but with small populations Wealth of the empire (rich agricultural lands, valuable furs, mineral deposits) had an important role in making Russia one of the great powers of Europe. Westward movement occurred within the military rivalries with major powers of the region. ○ Ottoman Empire, Poland, Sweden, Lithuania, Prussia & Austria. Russia obtained many territories in the Baltic region, Poland & Ukraine. Communication with Europe brought awareness of Russia’s backwardness →  extensive program of westernization ○ This included administrative changes, enlargement/ modernization of Russian military forces, new educational system for sons of noblemen, and dozens of manufacturing enterprises Russian nobles were to dress European-like and shave beards. The Capital city of Russia created “window on the West” Russia overall tried to make it more European like. This empire had also become an Asian power (completing with China, India, Persia, & Ottoman Empire) It was unsure whether Russia was a backward European country, or uniquely Slavic/Asian, shaped by Mongol legacy. Due to its size, Russia was transformed into a highly militarized state. Strengthened autocratic ways of the Russian Empire. Summary IV: IV. Asian Empires This last section focuses on None of new Asian empires being created achieved Asia and the empires that global reach/ worldwide impact of Europe’s were developing in China, American colonies were regional and the Mughal./ Ottoman Expanding Asian empires reflected energies/vitality Empire. The section explores of respective in early modern era how each empire began to Gave rise to important cross-cultural encounters form, the aspects helping them thrive, and the effect A. Making China an Empire on the people within and 17th-18th centuries: China expanded its empire by nearby these empires. The conquering northern and western regions, increasing section goes deep into how its territory and including many non-Chinese peoples. religion affects, underlining its This expansion was led by the Qing (Manchu) important influence on the dynasty, which had different, nomadic roots. Mughal and Ottoman The Qing rulers banned intermarriage with the Empires, as well as the Chinese. cultural traditions that The elite learned the Chinese language and started. Confucian principles, despite coming from different background. They use traditional bureaucratic methods to govern. Enforced traditional Confucian gender roles. The Qing dynasty invested 80 years in military campaigns during this period. They brought vast areas, like Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet, under Chinese control, primarily for security reasons not for economic gain. The rise of the Zunghars among the western Mongols reminded the Chinese of past conquests. Chinese expansion was looked at as a necessary defense strategy. The Qing campaigns against the Mongols marked China’s shift toward becoming a Central Asian empire. The Qing takeover in central Eurasia was a military conquest. To govern while saving money, the Chinese made use of local leaders. Generally, Qing officials respected the cultures of the Mongols, Tibetans, and Muslims, rather than forcing assimilation. Nobles often didn't have to pay taxes or perform labor duties. The new imperial state significantly expanded China’s territory → added a small number of non-Chinese people. The Chinese and Russian conquests transformed Central Asia. This region for a while had been an international crossroads, but under Russian & Chinese rule, it  became impoverished and less developed. Land-based trade declined as ocean trade took over. The involvement of inner Eurasia into these empires marked the end of the nomadic pastoral lifestyle. A. Muslims and Hindus in the Mughal Empire India’s Mughal Empire had a unique experience, marked by the long-standing interaction between Islamic and Hindu cultures in South Asia. 16th century: Brutal conquests resulted in a rare period of political unity in India. Mughal emperors had fragile control over the diverse subcontinent. A major problem in Mughal India was religion. One emperor tried to accommodate the Hindu majority and promoted religious tolerance → built a House of Worship. The Mughal Empire's elite culture blended elements of both Hindu and Muslim traditions. Some policies caused fallout from some Muslim groups. These inclusive policies were changed by a different empire to promote Islamic dominance. Religious intolerance & heavy taxation made Hindus angry led to an opposition movement against the Mughals. This made the Mughal Empire weaker & supported British colonization. The Mughal Empire was significant for the connection between two major world religions → multicultural approach and ending in rising tensions. B. Muslims and Christians in the Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire: founded by Turkic warrior groups. Three centuries: The Empire expanded into the Middle East, North Africa, and southeastern Europe, transforming into a powerful empire. ○ Incorporated traits of the Byzantine Empire & leading the Islamic world. Empire's expansion changed Turkish social life, lessening the influence of Central Asian pastoral women in society → Islam became more dominant. Elite Turkish women were often secluded and veiled, while slave women had a larger presence but still held some social power. The Ottoman Empire promoted the growing importance of Turkic people within the Islamic world (and some Arab population).  Took on the duty of protecting Mecca, Medina, & Jerusalem (holy cities of Islam). Persian culture: Poetry & imperial traditions thrived among the Ottoman elite. Early modern period: The empire was a place of significant cultural exchange. As the empire expanded in Anatolia, several Christians converted to Islam due to the decrease of the Byzantine state & the settlement of Turks. In the Balkans, agreements for Christian churches resulted in fewer conversions. Many Christians welcomed Ottoman rule = less taxation & oppression compared to previous Christian leaders. Christian/Jewish women had better property rights under Ottoman rule. Numerous Christian men, such as Balkan landlords and Greek merchants, joined the Ottoman elite without converting to Islam. Jewish refugees found greater opportunities within the empire. Turkish rule still heavily impacted Christians. Through a process called devshirme, Ottoman authorities enlisted thousands of young boys from Christian families for state service. The Ottoman Empire was mostly tolerant of Christians, → still was a big threat to Christendom. The empire’s military conquests provoked fear in Europe, creating a defensive atmosphere even as Europeans expanded into the Atlantic/ Indian Oceans. The Ottoman communications with Christian Europe created admiration & fear. The French government allied with the Ottoman Empire against the shared enemy (Habsburg Austria). European merchants violated papal bans to sell firearms to the Ottomans. This cultural encounter was more than conflict.