Chapter 11 - The Lively Art PDF

254 EARLY THEATRES: GREEK, ROMAN, AND MEDIEVAL 11 The ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome have had a profound impact on Western civilization. Their innovations in the arts, architecture, culture, science, ph...

254 EARLY THEATRES: GREEK, ROMAN, AND MEDIEVAL 11 The ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome have had a profound impact on Western civilization. Their innovations in the arts, architecture, culture, science, philosophy, law, engineering, and government shaped much of later thought and practice in the Western world. The theatres of Greece and Rome laid the founda- tions of many traditions of today’s Western theatre. The theatre of the Middle Ages was the bridge between these eras and the Renaissance. Before turning to these three remarkable eras, however, we should first briefly discuss some of the possible origins of theatre. ORIGINS OF THEATRE No one knows exactly how theatre began, or where or when it originated. We do know, however, that the impulse to create theatre is universal among humans. Two elements of theatre are storytelling and imitation. These, along with other elements, are an important part of religious observances and rituals—formal, repeated ceremonies—in cultures around the world. An example is found in ancient Egypt, where there was an elaborate ritual concerning the god Osiris. Osiris became a ruler of Egypt, married his sister Isis, was murdered by his brother, and was eventually avenged and resurrected. The ceremony retelling the story of Osiris was performed over a period of nearly 2,000 years, from around 2500 b.c.e. to 550 b.c.e., at a sacred place called Abydos. THE BEGINNING OF WESTERN THEATRE Western theatre began with Greek and Roman theatre and, after a hiatus of many centuries, continued with medieval theatre. The early Greek theatre is well known for its tragedies by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Seen here is a scene from Oedipus at Colonus by Sophocles in a production at the National Theatre in London, directed by Peter Hall. The production featured Alan Howard, shown above, playing the title role of Oedipus. (©ArenaPal/Topham/The Image Works) 255  ORIGINS OF THEATRE Most ritual ceremonies—whether in Africa, for instance, or among Native Americans, or in southeast Asia—have a strong theatrical component. This includes masks, costumes, repeated phrases, music, and dancing. Here, in Mali, West Africa, teetering on stilts, masked Dogon dancers in a traditional ceremony imitate a long-legged waterbird. (©Jon Arnold Images Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo) 256 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present  Another recurring theatrical element is costuming. Throughout central and western Africa, for example, striking and imaginative costumes and masks are used in a variety of ceremonies. Among the Kuba people in Zaire, there is a dance that marks the initiation into manhood. The central figure in this ceremony is the Woot, a mythical hero who wears an enormous headdress and a mask made of feathers, plumes, shells, and beads. In certain societies, rituals, religious ceremonies, imitation, and storytelling have been combined and transformed into theatrical events. In Western culture, the first place where this occurred was ancient Greece. GREECE Background: The Golden Age There are times in history when many forces come together to create a remarkable age. Such a time was the fifth century b.c.e. in Athens, Greece, when there were outstanding achievements in politics, philosophy, science, and the arts, including theatre. This era has come to be known as the classical period and also as the Golden Age of Greece. Greece was then a collection of independent city-states, and Athens—the most important—is credited with being the birthplace of democracy (although only male citizens had a voice in politics and government). Greek philosophers, such as Socrates and Plato, tried to explain the world around them; Herodotus trans- formed history from a simple account of events into a social science. Also, a number of important mathematical and scientific discoveries were made; for instance, the Greek mathematician Pythagoras formulated a theorem that remains one of the cornerstones of geometry; and Hippocrates formulated an oath for physicians that is the one still taken today. Greek sculpture from this period is treasured in museums around the world, and buildings such as the Parthenon—the temple that sits atop the Acropolis in Athens—remain models for architects. Theatre and Culture: Greek Theatre Emerges Chorus In ancient Greek Of particular importance to Greek theatre were the ceremonies honoring Dionysus— drama, a group of the god of wine, fertility, and revelry. Later, Greek drama was presented in honor performers who sang and danced, sometimes of Dionysus, and most (though not all) historians believe that Greek drama participating in the action originated out of the dithyrambic chorus, a group of fifty men who sang and but usually simply danced a hymn praising Dionysus. commenting on it. In A performer named Thespis is customarily credited with transforming these modern times, performers songs into drama in the sixth century b.c.e. by stepping out of the chorus and in a musical play who sing becoming an actor. He moved from simply reciting a story to impersonating a and dance as a group. character and engaging in dialogue with members of the chorus. The contribution Thespian Synonym for of Thespis is reflected in the term thespian, which is often used as a synonym “performer”; from Thespis, for “stage performer.” who is said to have been the first actor in ancient Theatre and Religion Greek theatre was intimately bound up with Greek reli- Greek theatre. gion, which was based on worship of a group of gods. Annual festivals were held City Dionysia The most in honor of the gods, and theatre became a central feature of certain Greek festi- important Greek festival in vals. In Athens, a spring festival called the City Dionysia (SIT-ee digh-eh-NIGH- honor of the god Dionysus, see-uh), honoring the god Dionysus, incorporated tragic drama in 534 b.c.e. and and the first to include comedy about 487 b.c.e. This festival lasted several days, including three days drama. Chapter 11 Early Theatres: Greek, Roman, and Medieval 257 GREEK THEATRE AND RELIGION Throughout its history theatre has often had a close association with religion. This is true of both Western and Eastern theatre. The Greek and Roman theatres were often linked to religious festivals, and an important segment of medieval theatre dealt directly with religious subjects. The chief Greek theatre festival honored the god Dionysus, who was the subject of a play by Euripides called Bacchai (also known as The Bacchae). The scene here is from a production of the play by the Royal National Theatre in London. The performers, left to right, are William Houston (Agave), Greg Hicks (Dionysus), and David Ryall (Cadmus). (©Donald Cooper/Photostage) Satyr play One of the devoted to tragedies, and had time set aside for five comedies. Satyr plays were three types of classical also performed; they were satiric versions of Greek history and mythology and Greek drama, usually a featured a chorus of half-man and half-goats, known as satyrs. A few days after ribald takeoff on Greek the festival, awards were given, the festival operation was reviewed by a repre- mythology and history that sentative body, and people who had behaved improperly or disrespectfully were included a chorus of satyrs, mythological creatures who judged and penalized. were half-man and half- Since theatre was a religious and civic event, the organization of dramatic goat. On festival days in presentations was undertaken by the government. Eleven months before a festival, Athens, it was presented as an appointed official of the city-state would choose the plays to be presented and the final play following would appoint a choregus (ko-REE-guhs)—the equivalent of a modern-day three tragedies. producer—for each of the selected playwrights. In the early days of Greek dramatic Choregus Wealthy person festivals, the tragic playwrights themselves functioned as directors. A playwright who financed a playwright’s would choose the actors and supervise the production, working with the chorus works at an ancient Greek and conferring with the actors about their roles. dramatic festival. Theatre and Myth What kind of stories were told in the plays written for the festivals? Where did the writers find these stories? The answer, in most cases, is Greek myths. A myth is a story or legend handed down from generation to generation. In every culture, certain myths have a strong hold because they seem to sum up a view of human relationships and try to explain the problems, catastrophes, and opportunities life presents to individuals. Greece had a multitude of myths, which furnished the stories for Greek drama. 258 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present  IN FOCUS: THEATRE FESTIVALS The tradition of theatre festivals continues throughout Shakespearean works, musicals, and contemporary the world. Unlike the Greek festivals, these are not con- dramas in multiple spaces every summer. nected to religious events or ceremonies but instead Contemporary scholars debate the impact of these often highlight new or classical works, frequently in- festivals on our contemporary theatre. Some point out corporate a variety of art forms, including theatre, mu- that they introduce audiences to artists from across sic, and the visual arts, and are staged over an extended the globe as well as to avant-garde works and lead to a period of time. Some of the most well-known festivals, vital artistic cross-fertilization in our global, postco- which include or focus on theatre, are Spoleto in lonial society. Others argue that the festivals lead to Charleston, South Carolina, Edinburgh Theatre commercialization, homogeneity, and the appropria- Festival in Scotland, and Avignon Festival in France. tion (almost the stealing of) unique theatrical tradi- There are many festivals that revolve around spe- tions of other cultures. cific playwrights such as Shakespeare and George Still, the popularity of these festivals reflects the Bernard Shaw or that present cutting edge works by continuing tradition of bringing various theatrical (and theatre artists from across the world. Shakespeare festi- sometimes other) events together in a way that began in vals, which present plays by the Bard as well as other Classical Greece. These modern versions are also an classical authors, for example, are held each summer in attempt to remind audiences of the centrality of theatre many states, including Oregon, Colorado, Utah and in our lives and its ability to establish a sense of Illinois. The Stratford Festival in Canada presents community. Greek Tragedy The most admired form of drama at the Greek festivals was tragedy. Approxi- Tragedy A serious drama mately 900 tragedies were produced in Athens during the fifth century b.c.e., of in which there is a downfall which thirty-one have survived—all by three dramatists: Aeschylus, Sophocles, of the primary character. and Euripides. Tragic Dramatists: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides Aeschylus (525–456 b.c.e.) is considered the first important Greek dramatist and therefore the first important Western dramatist. He began writing at a time when a theatre presenta- tion would be performed by a large chorus of fifty men and a single actor. In his own dramas, however, Aeschylus called for a second actor, who could play dif- ferent parts when he put on different masks. This made possible a true dramatic exchange between characters and was the start of drama as we know it. (It should be noted that all performers were men; women’s roles were played by men.) In another innovation, Aeschylus reduced the size of the chorus to twelve, making it more manageable. The dramas of Aeschylus dealt with noble families and lofty themes and were Trilogy In classical praised for their lyric poetry as well as their dramatic structure and intellectual Greece, three tragedies content. He was the acknowledged master of the trilogy—three tragedies that written by the same make up a single unit. The best-known of his trilogies is the Oresteia (458 b.c.e.): playwright and presented the saga of Agamemnon, a hero of the Trojan war who, when he returns home, on a single day; they were is murdered by his wife, Clytemnestra. She in turn is killed by their children, connected by a story or Electra and Orestes. thematic concerns. Chapter 11 Early Theatres: Greek, Roman, and Medieval 259  Sophocles (c. 496–406 b.c.e.), who lived through most of the fifth century b.c.e.,built on the dramatic form that Aeschylus had begun. He raised the number in the chorus to fifteen, where it was to remain. More important, he realized that an additional third actor—who, again, might play several parts—would allow enormous flexibility. Because each actor, by wearing different masks in turn, could play two or three parts, the use of three actors meant that a play could have seven or eight characters. With this newfound flexibility, Sophocles became particularly adept at dra- matic construction, introducing characters and information skillfully and building swiftly to a climax. (We will see a good example when we look more closely at King Oedipus, which is also called Oedipus Rex and Oedipus the King in differing translations.) The third great dramatist of the period, Euripides (c. 484–406 b.c.e.), was more of a rebel and has always been considered the most “modern” of the three. This results from several factors: sympathetic portrayal of female characters, increased realism, mixture of tragedy with melodrama and comedy, and skeptical treatment of the gods. Tragic Structure Let’s look now at the structure of Greek tragedy, and at the plot of one tragedy—King Oedipus—in particular. Pattern and Plot in Greek Tragedy Though there are variations among the surviving thirty-one plays of the three great dramatists, the structure in most of them follows the same pattern. First comes the opening scene, after which the chorus enters. This is followed by an episode between characters; then comes the first choral song. From that point on, there is an alternation between character episodes and choral songs until the final episode, which is followed by the exit of all the characters and the chorus. The chorus was a key—and unique—element of Greek drama, never again being used in the same way. The characters portrayed by the chorus usually represented ordinary citizens, and they had several functions. First, they reacted the way people in the audience might react and thus became surrogates for the audience. They were a group with which the audience members could identify. Second, the chorus often gave background information necessary for an under- standing of the plot. Third, the chorus represented a moderate balance between the extreme behaviors of the principal characters. Fourth, the chorus frequently offered philosophical observations and drew conclusions about what had hap- pened in the play. It is important to note that the choral passages were sung and danced, though we do not know what the music sounded like or how the move- ments were choreographed. Whether representing men or women, chorus members were always male—as were all performers in Greek theatre. The Plot of King Oedipus In the chapter “Creating the Dramatic Script”, we discussed two basic plot arrangements developed in Western drama: climactic and episodic construction. Climactic structure, like so much else in theatre, got its start in Greek drama, and Sophocles’s play King Oedipus (c. 430 b.c.e.) is a good example. The story of Oedipus begins long before the opening of the play, when Oedipus—the son of King Laius and Queen Jocasta of Thebes—is born. When he is an infant, it is prophesied that he will kill his father and marry his mother, 260 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present THE GREEK CHORUS The chorus in classical Greek theatre served many functions. It provided exposition, narrated the action, interacted with the other actors, and added spectacle. Shown here is a production of Medea by Euripides with Helen McCrory as Medea, surrounded by the chorus of women. The production was directed by Carrie Cracknell at the National Theatre in London. (©Marilyn Kingwill/Arenapal/The Image Works) and so he is left on a mountaintop to die. A shepherd saves him, however, and takes him to Corinth, where he is raised by the king and queen of Corinth as their own son. When Oedipus grows up, he learns of the oracle that prophesied that he would kill his parents. Thinking that the king and queen of Corinth are his true parents, he flees Corinth and heads for Thebes. As he approaches Thebes, he encounters, at a crossroads, a man whom he kills in a fight, not realizing that the man is his natural father, the king of Thebes. Oedipus proceeds on to Thebes and, after correctly answering the riddle of the Sphinx, he becomes king; he also marries the queen, Jocasta, not realizing that she is his mother. After a time, a plague hits Thebes. This is when the play begins. The action takes place on one day in one place: in front of the palace at Thebes. After the play opens, there is an Chapter 11 Early Theatres: Greek, Roman, and Medieval 261 KING OEDIPUS In Sophocles’s King Oedipus—one of the most famous Greek tragedies—Oedipus becomes king of Thebes after unknowingly killing his father and marrying his mother. Upon learning what he has done, Oedipus puts out his eyes. According to Aristotle, King Oedipus represents the quintessential Greek tragedy. In this scene we see Russian actor Viktor Dobronravov as Oedipus in a production staged by director Rimas Tuminas at the Vakhtangov Theatre. The production was a joint project of the Vakhtangov Theatre and the National Theatre of Greece in Athens and was staged as part of the Russia and Greece cross-cultural year. (©Vyacheslav Prokofyev/TASS/Getty Images) alternation of choral sections and episodes. The plot has many twists and turns as well as ups and downs for the characters. First, it is revealed that an oracle has said that the plague will not be lifted until the murderer of the former king is found and punished. Oedipus, not knowing that he himself is the murderer, vows to find the guilty party. After that, Jocasta says Oedipus should ignore the oracle because it stated that her husband, the king, would be killed by his son, but he was killed at a crossroads. Then Oedipus says he killed a man at a crossroads. Next, a messenger arrives from Corinth saying that the king there is dead. Jocasta points out that this proves that Oedipus did not kill his father because the father died while Oedipus was away. But then the messenger reveals that the king of Corinth was not the real father of Oedipus, and so forth, until the final revelations and conclusion—when Oedipus puts out his eyes and Jocasta kills herself. Thematically, King Oedipus raises questions that have provoked philosophical discussions for centuries: questions about fate, pride, and the ironic nature of human events. 262 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present  GREECE THEATRE Ye a r b.c. e.C U LTU R E A N D P O LITI C S Age of Homer (800 b.c.e.) Arion, harpist and poet, develops the dithyramb 600 (c. 600 b.c.e.) Thales of Miletus begins natural philosophy (physics) (c. 585 b.c.e.) 575 Peisistratus, tyrant of Athens (560 b.c.e.) Thespis, supposedly first “actor” in dithyramb 550 (mid–sixth century) Play contests begin in Athens (534 b.c.e.) 525 Pythagoras flourishes; Doric temples of southern Italy and Sicily (c. 525 b.c.e.) Athenian democracy (510 b.c.e.) 500 Pindar begins to write odes (500 b.c.e.) Battle of Marathon Persian Wars Comedy introduced to City (490 b.c.e.) (499–478 b.c.e.) Dionysia (c. 487 b.c.e.) 475 Aeschylus introduces Socrates born (470 b.c.e.) second actor (c. 471 b.c.e.) Sophocles introduces third actor (c. 468 b.c.e.) Hippocrates born Pericles begins rise Aeschylus’s Oresteia; (460 b.c.e.) to power: age of Pericles introduction of skene Prizes awarded for 450 (462–429 b.c.e.) (458 b.c.e.) tragic acting (449 b.c.e.) Beginning of Parthenon; Dramatic activities Herodotus flourishes (447 b.c.e.) incorporated into Lenaia Phidias dies (500–435 b.c.e.) (c. 442 b.c.e.) Sophocles’s King Oedipus (c. 430 b.c.e.) 425 Peloponnesian Wars (431–404 b.c.e.) Euripides’s Trojan Women Aristophanes’s Lysistrata Athenian fleet destroyed Spartan hegemony begins (415 b.c.e.) (411 b.c.e.) (404 b.c.e.) (404 b.c.e.) 400 Trial and execution of Socrates (399 b.c.e.) Aristotle born (384–322 b.c.e.) Plato’s Republic 375 (c. 375 b.c.e.) Spartan hegemony ends (404–371 b.c.e.) Theban hegemony ends Professional actors replace (371–362 b.c.e.) Philip II, king of Macedonia amateurs at City Dionysia 350 (352 b.c.e.) (c. 350 b.c.e.) Aristotle’s Poetics Alexander succeeds Philip II; (c. 335–323 b.c.e.) Theater of Dionysus in 335 b.c.e., occupies Greece completed (c. 325 b.c.e.) 325 From this period to Hellenistic culture spreads throughout eastern c. 100 b.c.e., Greek Menander’s Dyskolos Mediterranean (c. 320 b.c.e.) theatres built throughout (316 b.c.e.) Mediterranean (320 b.c.e.) 300 Artists of Dionysus recognized (277 b.c.e.) 275 Chapter 11 Early Theatres: Greek, Roman, and Medieval 263  Greek Comedy As we’ve noted, part of the seven-day City Dionysia was devoted to comedy, and comedies by five playwrights were presented during the festival. Later in the fifth century, a separate festival in the winter was devoted solely to comedy. Old Comedy Classical Greek comedy of this period has come to be known as Old Comedy to dis- Greek comedy that pokes tinguish it from a different kind of comedy that took hold at the end of the fourth fun at social, political, or century b.c.e. and is called New Comedy. The only surviving Old Comedies were cultural conditions and at written by Aristophanes (c. 448–c. 380 b.c.e.). particular figures. Old Comedy always makes fun of social, political, or cultural conditions, and New Comedy Hellenistic its characters are often recognizable personalities; the philosopher Socrates is only Greek and Roman comedies one of a number of prominent figures satirized in the plays of Aristophanes. The that deal with romantic and modern counterpart of Old Comedy is political satire in films and in television domestic situations. programs such as Saturday Night Live, The Colbert Report, and The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. In Old Comedy, the satire is underlined by fantastic and improbable plots; this is an aspect of the comic premise, discussed in the chapter “Theatrical Genres.” In Lysistrata, for instance, Aristophanes condemns the Peloponnesian war, which Greece was then fighting; the women in the play go on a sex strike, Agon In classical Greek refusing to sleep with the men until they stop the war. Old Comedy, a scene with a Unlike tragedies, most Old Comedies do not have a climactic structure. For debate between the two example, they do not take place within a short span of time or in one locale, and opposing forces in a play. they often have a large cast of characters. They also have two scenes not found Parabasis Scene in in tragedy. One is a debate, called an agon (AG-ohn), between two forces repre- classical Greek Old senting opposite sides of a political or social issue. The other is a choral section, Comedy in which the known as a parabasis (puh-RAB-uh-sihs), addressed directly to the audience; it chorus directly addresses makes fun of the spectators in general and of specific audience members. the audience members and During the Greek Hellenistic era, which began in the fourth century b.c.e., makes fun of them. Old Comedy gave way to New Comedy. Instead of the political, social, and cul- tural satire of Old Comedy, New Comedy dealt with Mechane romantic and domestic problems. We will study this kind of drama when we look at Roman c­ omedy—a direct outgrowth of Greek New Comedy. Mechane Dramatic Criticism in Greece: Skene Skene Aristotle In the fourth century b.c.e., roughly 100 years after Sophocles was at the height of his powers as a play- wright, the first significant work of dramatic criticism— The Poetics—appeared. Its author was Aristotle Paraskenion (384–322 b.c.e.). Aristotle, like Socrates and Plato, was an important Greek philosopher; he was also a Ekkyklema scientist who described and cataloged the world he saw around him, and he took the same approach in GREEK MECHANE AND EKKYKLEMA A conjectural reconstruction of Greek stage machinery. On analyzing tragedy. The Poetics is loosely organized the left, a crane used for flying in characters located on a and incomplete, and the version we have may have side wing (paraskenion) of the scene building. On the right, been based on a series of lecture notes. It is so intel- a mechane higher up on the roof of the skene. The ligent and so penetrating, however, that it remains the ekkyklema below was a platform on wheels used to bring single most important piece of dramatic criticism in out characters from inside the building. existence. 264 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present  ℰx p e r i e n cin g 𝒯h e a t r e ℋis t o r y ANTIGONE A t h e n s , 4 4 1 b. c. e. The Dionysia festival, an annual series of of a woman, appear in the playing year is 441 b.c.e. It is a morning in events lasting several days. During area: They represent Antigone and late March in Athens, Greece, and the this festival, all business in Athens— her sister, Ismene. Antigone tells Is- citizens of Athens are up early, making both commercial and governmental— mene that she means to defy their un- their way to the Theatre of Dionysus, comes to a halt. On the day before the cle, the king, and give their brother an open-air theatre on the south side plays, there was a parade through the Polynices an honorable burial. Is- of the Acropolis, the highest hill in city, which ended near the theatre at a mene, unlike Antigone, is timid and Athens. On the Acropolis are several temple dedicated to the god Diony- frightened; she argues that women temples, including the Parthenon, a sus, for whom the festival is named. are too weak to stand up to a king. magnificent new temple dedicated to There, a religious observance was Besides, Ismene points out, Antigone the goddess Athena, which is under held at the altar. will be put to death if she is caught. construction at this very time. Today is one of three days of the Antigone argues, however, that she The Theatre of Dionysus has festival devoted mainly to tragedies. will not be subservient to a man, even semicircular seating built into the On these days, one playwright will the king. slope of the hill on the side of the present three tragedies and a satyr When the two female characters Acropolis. At the foot of the seating play. The three tragedies are some- leave the stage, a chorus of fifteen area is a flat, circular space—the times linked to form one long play, men enters. These men represent the orchestra—where the actors will called a trilogy; but sometimes they elders of the city, and throughout the perform. Behind the orchestra a are three separate pieces—as they play—in passages that are sung and temporary stage house has been built, are today. danced—they will fulfill several from which the performers will make The play about to begin is Anti- functions: providing background in- entrances and exits. The facade of the gone by Sophocles. Its ­subject comes formation, raising philosophical stage house for the performance to- from a familiar myth: Antigone is the questions, and urging the principal day represents the temple at Thebes, daughter of King Oedipus. After her figures to show restraint. The choral where the action will take place. father’s death, her two brothers, Eteo- sections alternate with scenes of Priests of various religious orders cles and Polynices, fight a war confrontation between Antigone, are sitting in special seats at the edge against each other to see who will be- Creon, and the other main of the circle opposite the stage house. come king of Thebes; during the war, characters. Other dignitaries, such as civic and they kill each other. Antigone’s uncle, As the play continues, Antigone military officials, are arranged Creon, then becomes king of Thebes. attempts to bury Polynices, but she around them in the first few rows; Creon blames Polynices for the con- is caught and brought before the above them sit both citizens and flict and issues an edict that Poly- king. In their confrontation, Anti- slaves. No one—not even those sit- nices is not to be given an honorable gone defies Creon. She is sentenced ting in the top row—will have any burial. Antigone decides to defy Cre- to death and put into a cave to die. trouble hearing the performers; the on’s order and bury Polynices. The By the end of the play, not only is acoustics are so good that a whisper audience members know this myth Antigone dead; so too are Creon’s by an actor in the orchestra will carry well and are curious to see how wife and son, who have killed them- to the upper reaches of the Sophocles—one of their favorite dra- selves. In the final scene, we see amphitheatre. matists—will deal with it. Creon standing alone, wearing his The plays performed for the citi- As the play begins, two actors, tragic mask, bereft of all those zens of Athens are part of the City each wearing the mask and costume whom he held dear. Chapter 11 Early Theatres: Greek, Roman, and Medieval 265  Audience Altar Orchestra , or Paro dos d Paro nce entr os, or a ance entr Skene, or stage house GROUND PLAN OF A TYPICAL GREEK THEATRE The theatres of ancient Greece were set into hillsides, which made natural amphitheatres. At the base of the seating area was a circular space (orchestra) in which the chorus performed; at the center of the orchestra was an altar (thymele). Behind the orchestra was a temporary stage house (skene), at each side of which was a corridor (parodos) for entrances and exits. Amphitheatres Large oval, circular, or semicircular outdoor theatre with rising In The Poetics Aristotle describes six elements of drama: (1) plot (arrange- tiers of seats around an ment of dramatic incidents), (2) character (people represented in the play), open playing area; also, an (3) thought or theme (ideas explored), (4) language (dialogue and poetry), exceptionally large indoor (5) music, and (6) spectacle (scenery and other visual elements). These correspond auditorium. roughly to the elements of theatre we explore in the chapters “Creating the Orchestra A circular Dramatic Script” through “Lighting and Sound,” except that Aristotle does not playing space in ancient include the performers. Tragedy, Aristotle suggests, deals with the reversals in Greek theatres; in modern fortune and eventual downfall of a royal figure. times, the ground-floor seating in a theatre auditorium. Theatre Production in Greece Greek drama, as we have noted, was staged in amphitheatres, which were cut out Skene Classical Greek and of the side of a hill and probably held between 15,000 and 17,000 spectators. At Hellenistic scene house. the base of the hillside was a circular playing area called the orchestra (recent Parodos In classical excavations suggest that the earliest orchestra may have been rectangular or trap- Greek drama, the scene in ezoidal). Behind the playing area was a scene house, known as the skene. The which the chorus enters. chorus made its entrances and exits on each side of the scene house through an Also, the entranceway for aisle called a parodos (PAR-uh-dohs). This is the first recorded example of the the chorus in Greek theatre. thrust stage, discussed in the chapter “Theatre Spaces.” The standard scenic set- Theatron Where the ting for Greek tragedy was a palace, which was represented by the skene, and audience sat in an ancient simple devices were used to indicate locales and to move characters on- and Greek theatre. offstage. The audience sat in the theatron. During the classical period the hillside 266 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present theatron probably had temporary wooden bleachers, but these were replaced by stone seats during the later Hellenistic era. All the characters in Greek drama, male and female, were portrayed by men. The performers, particularly the chorus members, had to be accomplished at sing- ing and dancing as well as vocal projection. The actors may have been paid, and after 449 b.c.e. an acting contest was introduced. The major element in Greek costuming was the mask, worn by all performers. The mask covered the entire head and included hairstyle and distinctive facial features such as a beard. Masks indicated the emotional state of the characters and also made it possible for male actors to play female characters. Music and dance were always important elements of classical Greek theatre. By the time of Euripedes, it is believed that music was used, as in today’s films, almost throughout a presentation. Dance also reflected the type of play for which it was created. Later Greek Theatre In the two centuries after Aristotle—referred to as the Hellenistic Age—there were several developments in Greek theatre. The period of great original drama was over, and revivals of plays from the past were increasingly presented. As original drama became less important, there was a shift of focus to acting and the actor. The theatre of this period saw the introduction of enlarged masks, exaggerated headdresses, and platform shoes that made the performers taller. Also, larger, more permanent stages were built, and these too directed more attention toward the actors. Emblematic of this new status for performers was the creation in 277 b.c.e. of a guild known as the Artists of Dionysus, which was the ancient equivalent of today’s Actors Equity Association. Theatre buildings proliferated throughout the Hellenistic world. We know of at least forty theatres built during this period from Asia Minor in the east to Italy in the west, many of them still standing. These were permanent structures, with both the seating area and the stage house built of stone, in contrast to the less permanent wooden structures of earlier times. Theatre continued to flourish in Greece long after the second century b.c.e., but it was no longer purely Greek theatre—it was influenced by the omnipresent Roman civilization. ROME Background: Rome and Its Civilization As ancient Greece declined in power and importance, another civilization began to emerge in Europe on the Italian peninsula. Its center was the city of Rome, from which it took its name. While Greece is noted for its creativity and imagina- tion, Rome is recognized more for its practical achievements: law, engineering, and military conquest. And just as these achievements were more down to earth than those of Greece, so too was Roman theatre. Instead of high-minded tragedy, it focused on comedy and other popular entertainments, comparable to our mov- ies, television, and rock concerts. Rome was founded, according to legend, around 750 b.c.e., and for more than 200 years it was ruled by kings. Around 500 b.c.e. the kings were overthrown, and a republic—which was to last nearly 500 years—was established. Chapter 11 Early Theatres: Greek, Roman, and Medieval 267  ROME THEATRE Year C U LTU R E A N D P O LITI C S b.c.e.–c.e. Traditional date for the founding of Rome (753 b.c.e.) 750 First Punic Wars (Greek influence on Roman culture) 250 (264–241 b.c.e.) Regular comedy and tragedy added to Ludi Romani (240 b.c.e.) Second Punic Wars (218–201 b.c.e.); Rome defeats Philip V of Hannibal’s victories (218–216 b.c.e.) 200 Plautus’s Pseudolus (191 b.c.e.) Macedonia (200–197 b.c.e.) Censorship of Cato; 1,000 talents Terence’s Phormio (161 b.c.e.) spent on sewers (184 b.c.e.) Roman citizens freed of direct taxation (167 b.c.e.) 150 Rome annexes Macedonia First high-level aqueduct in (147 b.c.e.) Rome (144 b.c.e.) Slave revolts in Sicily (135 b.c.e.) 100 Vitruvius’s De architectura (90 b.c.e.) Pompey suppresses piracy (67 b.c.e.) First permanent theatre in Rome (55 b.c.e.) Golden age of Roman literature (c. 58–50 b.c.e.) 50 Caesar’s conquest of Gaul (55 b.c.e.) Horace’s Art of Poetry (24 b.c.e.) 0 Romans build theatres and amphitheatres Jesus crucified (30 c.e.) throughout the empire (c. 30–200 c.e.) 50 Seneca (c. 4 b.c.e.–65 c.e.) writes Roman tragedies 100 150 Marcus Aurelius rules (161–180 c.e.) Severan dynasty; Augustan order 200 disintegrates (193–235 c.e.) Theatrical presentations 250 Extensive persecution of approximately 100 days per year Christians (c. 250–300 c.e.) 300 Constantine rules; empire reunited (324–337 c.e.) 350 St. Augustine born (354 c.e.) Julian the Apostate restores paganism (361 c.e.) Theodosius I forbids pagan worship (391 c.e.) Council of Carthage decrees excommunication for those 400 who attend theatre rather than church on holy days; Sack of Rome by Visigoths (410 c.e.) actors forbidden sacraments (398 c.e.) 450 Death of Attila the Hun (453 c.e.) Fall of western Roman empire (476 c.e.) 500 268 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present POPULAR ENTERTAINMENTS IN ROME The Romans constructed large arenas for the presentation of popular entertainments, including gladiator battles, chariot races, and animal battles. Seen here is the Roman Colosseum, an amphitheatre originally built in 70 to 82 c.e., that still stands today and has undergone a recent renovation. It was the scene of many spectacular events, including bloody combats. (©Jennifer Barrow/123RF RF) During the third century b.c.e., Rome engaged in a lengthy conflict with Carthage known as the Punic Wars and finally emerged victorious. As a result, Rome controlled large parts of the central and western Mediterranean. It was at this period of conquest that Rome also came into contact with Greece and saw first-hand Greek art and culture, including theatre. During the first century b.c.e., the Roman republic began to show signs of serious strain in attempting to govern so vast an area. In the midst of general turmoil, Julius Caesar made himself dictator. He was subsequently assassinated by a group led by Brutus, who in turn was defeated in battle by Mark Antony and Octavius. The republic could not survive these shocks, and in 27 b.c.e. Rome became an empire with one supreme ruler. This form of government continued for several centuries, during which most of the civilized Western world was uni- fied under Roman rule. Roman laws dealing with property, marriage, and inheritance have contin- ued to influence Western civilization to the present day; in addition, the Romans Chapter 11 Early Theatres: Greek, Roman, and Medieval 269  were great engineers and architects, building important aqueducts and road- ways. Religion was also of utmost importance to the Romans, who worshipped gods that were counterparts of the Greek deities, as well as a large number of other divinities. Theatre and Culture in Rome When the Romans turned to theatre, they were strongly influenced by the Greeks, just as they were in sculpture and architecture. They borrowed freely from Greek theatre—particularly Greek New Comedy, from which they developed their own form of popular comedy. We should note that the Romans’ popular entertainments were also influenced by Etruria, a civilization northwest of Rome that flourished from 650 to 450 b.c.e. Ludi Romani A festival In 240 b.c.e., a festival called the Ludi Romani, dedicated to the god Jupiter dedicated to the god Jupiter (the Roman counterpart of Zeus), became the first major Roman festival to incor- which was the first major porate theatre. Five more official festivals eventually incorporated theatre; in addi- Roman festival to tion, an increasing number of days were set aside for minor festivals and theatrical incorporate theatre. activities. Popular Entertainment in Rome Throughout theatre history, all civilizations have developed popular entertain- ments, which appeal to all levels of society, and require no educational, social, or cultural sophistication to appreciate them. Many popular entertainments are theat- rical in nature, using live performers. Some historians say that twenty-first-century American culture, with its highly developed popular entertainments—television, film, rock concerts, athletic competitions, and other less sophisticated dramatic arts—is much like Roman culture. The reason for this is that many Roman enter- tainments correspond to modern ones. The Romans, for example, greatly enjoyed chariot racing, equestrian performances, acrobatics, wrestling, prizefighting, and gladiatorial combats—though the gladiatorial combats were not simulated but actual battles to the death. To house these spectacles, the Romans constructed special buildings, coun- terparts to our modern football and baseball stadiums. The Circus Maximus in Rome, first laid out in 600 b.c.e. for chariot races and frequently remodeled thereafter, eventually seated more than 60,000 spectators. The most renowned amphitheatre constructed by the Romans was the Colosseum, built around 80 c.e. The Romans also developed popular entertainments that were more closely connected to theatre. Roman mime, like Greek mime, included gymnastics, jug- gling, songs, and dances. Short comedic skits, which were often sexually sugges- Pantomime Originally a tive, were also presented. A unique Roman stage presentation was pantomime, Roman entertainment in which used a single dancer, a chorus, and musical accompanists and was some- which a narrative was sung what akin to modern ballet; its performers were often sponsored by emperors and by a chorus while the story members of the nobility. was acted out by dancers. Now used loosely to cover any form of presentation that Roman Comedy: Plautus and Terence relies on dance, gesture, and Although theatre and drama existed in Rome for nearly seven centuries, the works physical movement without of only three playwrights survive: the comedies of Plautus and Terence and the dialogue or speech. tragedies of Seneca. Plautus (c. 254–184 b.c.e.), who based almost all his comedies on Greek New Comedy, dealt exclusively with domestic situations, particularly the trials 270 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present  IN FOCUS: ROMAN AMPHITHEATRES Some of the amphitheatres of Roman times continue to soccer games and rock concerts, and while these pro- be used today as tourist attractions and for the staging posals were rejected, the exterior restoration and of popular concerts. Two examples are the Colosseum cleaning was completed by the summer of 2016. A and the Circus Maximus. plan to create a modern floor, to replace the no longer The Colosseum, built to house many of the Romans’ extant one, and for the presentation of large-scale cul- popular entertainments, is now an extremely popular tural events is slated for completion in 2018. The pri- modern tourist attraction. However, the space we visit mary aim now is to enhance the Colosseum’s appeal today has been damaged by earthquakes, and some of as a tourist attraction. the structure was dismantled during the Middle Ages. Like the Colosseum, other Roman arenas have Nevertheless, the Colosseum continues to be used in housed contemporary entertainments. Operas, for ex- contemporary times for special events, including occa- ample, are staged in the amphitheater in Verona. The sional performances. Circus Maximus is used today as a public park and for Pope Benedict XVI first employed the space to popular entertainments. In 2014, the rock group the stage the Stations of the Cross for Good Friday in Rolling Stones staged a concert there. In 2016, Bruce 2009, a tradition continued by Pope Francis. In 2011, Springsteen performed at the Circus Maximus. In addi- a restoration of the space was proposed using private tion, this ancient arena has been used to host public and public funds. There have been controversial sug- celebrations, such as those held for victorious Italian gestions for using the renovated arena, including soccer teams. and tribulations of romance. His characters are recognizable, recurring stock types, the most popular being the parasite who lives off others and is moti- vated mainly by sensuality. Courtesans, lovers, and overbearing parents were also favorite characters. Most of the dialogue was meant to be sung. Plautus’s comedies are farces, and they use such farcical techniques as mistaken identity. A good example of mistaken identity is found in The Menaechmi, which is also called The Menaechmus Brothers or The Twin Menaechmi in dif- fering translations. The Roman comic writer who followed Plautus was Terence (c. 185–159 b.c.e.). Although Terence’s plots are as complicated as those of Plautus, his style is more literary and less exaggerated. Terence’s Phormio (161 b.c.e.) dramatizes the attempts of two cousins to overcome their fathers’ objections to their lovers. The plot complications and stock characters are similar to those found in The Menaechmi, but Phormio is less farcical and slapstick and gives more emphasis to verbal wit. Also, whereas much of Plautus’s dialogue was meant to be sung, most of Terence’s dialogue was spoken. Roman Tragedy: Seneca The most notable tragic dramatist of the Roman period was Seneca (c. 4 b.c.e.–65 c.e.). Seneca’s plays appear to be similar to Greek tragedies but in fact are quite distinct. His chorus is not integral to the dramatic action; and—unlike Greek dramatists, who banished violence from the stage—Seneca emphasizes onstage stabbings, murders, and suicides. In addition, supernatural beings often appear in the dramatic action. Chapter 11 Early Theatres: Greek, Roman, and Medieval 271 ROMAN COMEDY Roman comedy, which was based on Greek New Comedy, stressed domestic travails presented humorously. Roman comedy has been the basis for comedy running through the entire Western tradition, right up to the point of today’s television situation comedies. One of the most popular adaptations of ancient Roman comedy is the musical A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim. The scene here is from a production at the Paper Mill Playhouse in New Jersey, with Paul C. Vogt as Pseudolus (center), the lead character. (©T Charles Erickson) Although his plays were probably not performed for large public audiences, Seneca had a noteworthy influence on later authors, particularly Shakespeare. Hamlet—which has much onstage violence and includes a supernatural character (the ghost of Hamlet’s father)—is often described as influenced by Senecan revenge tragedy. Dramatic Criticism in Rome: Horace Like Roman drama, Roman dramatic criticism was based on the work of others, especially Aristotle. Horace (65–8 b.c.e.), sometimes called the “Roman Aristotle,” outlined his theory of correct dramatic technique in Ars Poetica (The Art of Poetry). Horace argued that tragedy and comedy must be distinct genres, or types, of drama, and that tragedy should deal with royalty, whereas comedy should depict common people. He also stressed that drama should not just entertain but also teach a lesson. 272 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present  ℰx p e r i e n cin g 𝒯h e a t r e ℋis t o r y THE MENAECHMI Rome, 184 b.c.e. It is 184 b.c.e., plays and have engaged acting stolen his wife’s dress, hiding it un- and many of the inhabitants of the troupes to present individual plays. der his own clothes—and is going city of Rome are on their way to at- Each troupe is under the direction of to give it to his mistress, Erotium. tend performances at a spring festival a manager, and one of these manag- At Erotium’s house he suggests that in honor of Jupiter. Their mood today ers has bought from Plautus a play in return for the dress, she invite is happy and ebullient, because they called The Menaechmi and has ar- them to dinner. Menaechmus exits. are about to see a comedy by Plautus, ranged for the costumes, music, and Meanwhile, the twin from whose plot twists and comic inven- other production elements. Syracuse has arrived with his slave, tion have made his works favorites As the Romans enter the theatre, Messenio. His master gives Messenio with everyone. they see two doors onstage: One a purse full of money for safekeep- The Romans are heading toward a opens on the house of Menaechmus ing. At that point, Erotium steps out large, temporary wooden theatre of Epidamnus (the Greek city in of her house and, mistaking the building, seating several thousand, which Plautus has set his play); the Syracuse twin for Menaechmus, that has been erected next to a temple other is the door to the house of Ero- makes advances to him, by which of Jupiter. All theatre productions in tium, a woman with whom he is totally confused. Not knowing Rome now take place during reli- Menaechmus is having a love affair he is a twin, she is equally confused gious festivals, and all the theatres that he is trying to keep secret from by his odd behavior. Meanwhile, are near temples. A Roman theatre— his wife. The stage represents the the two servants of the twins are unlike the Greek theatres in the lands street in front of the two houses; at constantly confused with one an- Rome has conquered—is a single one end is an exit to the port, and at other as well. unit, built on level ground, with the the other end is an exit to the center Finally, the Syracuse twin does stage house attached directly to the of town. enter the house of Erotium to have ends of a semicircular audience area. An actor comes onstage to deliver dinner, and later leaves with the dress In front of the stage house is a long a prologue. He asks the audience that his twin brother Menaechmus had platform stage; and in front of that is members to pay careful attention to previously given her. Menaechmus a half-circle surrounded by the what Plautus has to say, and then he comes back just in time to have his audience. outlines the background of the story: wife demand that he return her dress. The group converging on the the- how the Menaechmi twins were sep- He goes to Erotium to retrieve the atre consists of people from all walks arated when they were infants and dress, only to be told by her that she of life. Plautus himself has remarked how the twin who grew up in Syra- has already given it to him. In short, that a Roman audience is a genuine cuse is just now returning to try to he is rebuffed by both his wife and mixture: In addition to well-to-do find his long-lost brother. As in his mistress. middle- and upper-class citizens, it many of Plautus’s plays, most of the The play continues like this, with includes government officials and dialogue is sung, somewhat like the the two brothers constantly being their wives; children with nurses; musical numbers in contemporary confused for one another by every- prostitutes; slaves—in short, virtually musical comedies. one, including the wife, the mistress, every social group. Because this is a When the play opens, Menaech- the father, and the two servants. state festival, admission is free. mus is shown to be the despair of Confusion and slapstick comedy Magistrates of the state have re- his jealous wife. He confides to abound until the end of the play, ceived a grant to produce today’s “Sponge,” a parasite, that he has when everything is resolved. Chapter 11 Early Theatres: Greek, Roman, and Medieval 273  IN FOCUS: GREEK AND ROMAN POPULAR ARTS Although we focus on the great dramas and comedies created during the Greek and Roman eras, we should not forget that there was a strong tradition of popular entertainment during these time periods. The types of popular arts that flourished during these eras were to have a great influence on popular culture through our own times. During the classical and Hellenistic Greek eras, we know that there were traveling mimes who performed throughout the Greek world. Historians believe that mime may have developed in the fifth and fourth centu- ries b.c.e., but there is a great deal of debate over how to define the form. Greek mime is often described as deal- ing with domestic and sexual situations in a popular and highly bawdy manner, though it may have first been a GLADIATOR BATTLES form that parodied mythological figures and stories. Shown here is a Roman mosaic depicting a gladiator Mimes sometimes performed by themselves, but by battling a leopard. Such battles between human combatants and animals were extremely popular, the Hellenistic era they were usually organized into particularly during the Roman empire. (©Fratelli Alinari troupes. Mime was never introduced into the festivals IDEA S.p.A./Getty Images) and was seen as a lower form of theatrical art. Women eventually were performers in mime troupes, and fre- quently the actors in this type of popular entertainment, stadiums, and amphitheatres for popular arts. Some of especially in the Hellenistic era, appeared without the circuses, for example, had tracks for chariot races. masks. In order to survive economically, mime troupes Stadiums held animal battles, battles between gladia- traveled extensively. For that reason, it is often argued tors, and fights between humans and animals; the that Greek mime performers influenced the develop- Circus Maximus and the Colosseum were erected for ment of Roman theatre and popular entertainments. just such events. Roman theatre had great competition in the popular In modern times, we can see many similarities to arts that were available to the Roman public. Mime the popular arts of Greece and Rome. Stand-up come- troupes continued to perform in Roman times. The dians and small troupes of improvisatory comics enter- Romans also developed a form referred to as panto- tain us regularly in events that are very reminiscent of mime, in which a single male dancer interpreted classi- the early mimes. Sports arenas, indoors and outdoors, cal literature, sometimes accompanied by a chorus that house gladiator-like battles, such as football and box- chanted and by musicians. ing. And many of these events are highly theatrical, But the Romans also organized even greater spec- mixing pregame, halftime, and postgame performances tacles. As we have noted, they created huge circuses, into already highly theatricalized sports. Theatre Production in Rome Roman production practices differed slightly from those of Greece. Roman fes- tivals were under the jurisdiction of a local government official who hired an Dominus Leader of a acting troupe. The dominus, or head, of a troupe—who was usually the leading Roman acting troupe. actor—made financial arrangements, bought dramas from playwrights, hired musicians, and obtained costumes. Acting companies had at least six members, 274 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present all male; and the Romans ignored the three-actor rule of Greek theatre. Roman acting technique emphasized detailed pantomime and broad physical gestures, necessitated by the size of Roman theatres; it also stressed beautiful vocal delivery. The Romans admired performers who specialized in one type of role and refined the characterizations of stock figures. Facial expression was unim- portant since full linen head masks were worn; only mime performers appeared without masks. As we’ve seen, Roman theatres were based on Greek models. The Romans did not construct a permanent theatre until 55 b.c.e. Thus there were no permanent spaces for presenting the works of Plautus and Terence, the best-known Roman playwrights. Instead, elaborate temporary wooden structures, probably similar to the later permanent ones, were erected. A Roman theatre had the same three units as a Greek theatre: (1) a semicir- cular, sloped seating area; (2) an orchestra; and (3) a stage house, called the scaena (SKAY-nah). The Roman structures, however, were different from classi- Scaena Stage house in a cal Greek theatres in that they were freestanding buildings with the tiered audi- Roman theatre. ence section connected to the stage house to form a single unit. The sloped, semicircular audience seating area was often larger than its Greek counterpart; with seating capacity ranging from 8,000 to 25,000. The Roman orchestra, which was semicircular (rather than circular as in Greek theatres), was rarely used for staging; rather, it was used for seating govern- ment officials or, in some theatres, was flooded for sea battles. In front of the stage house was a large raised stage about 5 feet high whose area varied from approximately 100 feet by 20 feet to 300 feet by 40 feet. The stage house itself was a unique feature of the Roman theatre structure. Two or three stories high, it was used for storage and dressing space, and a roof extended from the scene building over the stage to protect the actors from the weather. Two side wings connected the stage house to the audience area. The facade of the stage house—the scaena frons—was elaborate and ornate, with statuary, columns, recesses, and three to five doorways. There were also passageways, vomitoria, that came out from under the seating Vomitoria These were area, and which led to the orchestra and stage; they could be used by actors for passageways in Roman entrances and exits. Because of its emphasis on the raised stage and the facade theatres that came out from behind it, the Roman theatre moved to a point somewhere between the thrust stage under the seating area, and of the Greek theatre and later proscenium stages. which led to the orchestra and stage; they could be used by actors for entrances Decline of Roman Theatre and exits. In the fourth century c.e., it was clear that the Roman Empire was beginning to fall apart. In 330, Emperor Constantine established two capitals for the empire: Rome in the west and Constantinople in the east. From that point on, the center of gravity shifted to Constantinople, and the city of Rome became less and less important. The downfall of Rome was marked in 476 c.e. by the unseating of the west- ern Roman emperor by a barbarian ruler. It had probably been caused by the disintegration of the Roman administrative structure and the sacking of Roman cities by northern invaders; but in any case the fall of the empire also meant the end of western Roman theatre. Another important factor in the decline of Roman theatre was the rise of Christianity. From the outset, the Christian church was opposed to theatre because of the connection between theatre and pagan religions and because the church Chapter 11 Early Theatres: Greek, Roman, and Medieval 275 THE ROMAN THEATRE AT ORANGE The Romans built theatres throughout their empire, which circled the Mediterranean Sea. One of the best-preserved, built in the first or second century c.e., is at Orange in France, near the center of town. Note the semicircular orchestra, the large stage area, and the stage house at the back, with its ornate facade with niches for statues and other adornments. (©Jose Antonio Moreno/age fotostock Spain, S.L./Alamy Stock Photo RF) GROUND PLAN OF A TYPICAL ROMAN ­THEATRE Roman theatres, in Seating area contrast to Greek theatres, were freestanding structures—all one building—with the stone stage house connected to Orchestra the seating area, known as the cavea. The orchestra was a semicircle instead of a full circle as in Greek theatres. The Stage stage was long and wide, and the stage house was Scene building several stories high with an elaborate facade. 276 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present fathers felt that evil characters portrayed onstage taught immorality to audiences. In addition, the sexual content of Roman entertainments offended church leaders. As a result, the church issued various edicts condemning theatre and in 398 c.e. decreed that anyone who went to the theatre rather than to church on holy days would be excommunicated. THE MIDDLE AGES Background: Medieval Europe The period from 500 to 1500 c.e. in Western history is known as the Middle Ages or the medieval era. The first 500 years are referred to as the early Middle Ages, and the next 500 years as the later Middle Ages. At the start of the early Middle Ages in Europe, following invasions from the north and the dissolution of Roman civilization, cities were abandoned and life throughout southern and western Europe became largely agricultural. The nobility controlled local areas, where most people worked as vassals. Gradually, several hundred years after the fall of the Roman Empire, towns began to emerge, and with them trade and crafts. Learning also slowly revived. The strongest force dur- ing this period was the Roman Catholic Church, which dominated not only reli- gion but education and frequently politics as well. We should also note that theatrical activity did continue in the eastern Roman Empire, known as Byzantium, until 1453, when the region was con- quered by the Islamic Turks. The theatre of Byzantium was reminiscent of theatre during the Roman Empire. The Hippodrome, a large arena in Constantinople, was the Byzantine equivalent of the Circus Maximus or the Colosseum, and popular entertainments like those of Rome flourished in the east. One contribution of the Byzantine Empire to the continuity of theatre consists of these popular presentations; another important contribution lies in the fact that Byzantium was the preserver of the manuscripts of classical Greek drama: The plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides and the criticism of Aristotle were saved. When the eastern Roman Empire fell in 1453, these manu- scripts were transferred to the Western world and became part of the rediscovery that influenced the Renaissance. Theatre and Culture in the Middle Ages During the early part of the Middle Ages, there were some scattered traces of theatrical activity, mostly based on the popular entertainments of Greece and Rome—traveling jugglers, minstrels, and mimes. In the late tenth century a nun in a convent in Germany, Hrosvitha of Gandersheim (c. 935–1001), wrote reli- gious plays based on the dramas of the Roman writer Terence. Though her plays were probably not produced, it is still remarkable that she created drama almost in a vacuum. (Hrosvitha’s work has been reexamined more fully by feminist critics.) Essentially, though, theatre had to be reborn in the West during the latter part of the Middle Ages. Interestingly, key elements of the new theatre first appeared in the church, which had suppressed theatre several hundred years earlier. In cer- tain portions of the church service, priests or members of the choir chanted the Liturgical dramas Early lines of characters from the Bible. Gradually these small segments, which were medieval church drama, delivered in Latin, were enlarged and became short dramas—known as liturgical written in Latin and dealing dramas—enacted in the church. with biblical stories. Chapter 11 Early Theatres: Greek, Roman, and Medieval 277  Also, during this early period of the Middle Ages, a German nun named Hildegard von Bingen (1098–1179) wrote short musical plays that were prob- ably performed in her convent. Hildegard wrote liturgical songs that were accompanied by texts. These dramatic musical pieces honored saints and the Virgin Mary and were written for performance on religious days. Hildegard also created a play in Latin, Ordo Virtutum (Play of Virtues), that seems to foreshadow the later vernacular morality plays. Vernacular drama Drama Later in the Middle Ages, vernacular drama developed. The language of these from the Middle Ages later plays was not Latin but the everyday speech of the people. Like the brief performed in the everyday church plays, vernacular dramas dealt with biblical stories and other religious sto- speech of the people and ries. Vernacular dramas, however, were more elaborate and were usually presented presented in town squares as a series of one-act dramas. Also, they were presented not inside churches but in or other parts of cities. town squares or other parts of cities. Historians continue to debate whether vernacu- Mystery plays Also called lar drama evolved from liturgical drama or developed independently. cycle plays. Short dramas of the Middle Ages based on events of the Old and New Medieval Drama: Mystery and Morality Plays Testaments and often Two types of religious vernacular plays were popular in the medieval period. organized into historical Mystery plays or cycle plays dramatized a series of biblical religious events that cycles. could stretch from Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, Noah and the flood, Morality plays Medieval and Abraham and Isaac to the stories of Christ in the New Testament as well as drama designed to teach a the lives of the saints. Morality plays such as Everyman (c. 1500) used alle- lesson. The characters were gorical characters and religious themes to teach a moral lesson. Virtually all the often allegorical and plays were short—the equivalent of a one-act play today—and mystery plays were represented virtues or faults. often strung together to form a series, known as a cycle. The best-known mystery play is The Second Shepherds’ Play, produced in England in the late fourteenth century. It concerns three shepherds who, according to the Bible, went to visit the Christ child just after his birth in a manger. The first section of the drama comically depicts the stealing of a sheep from the shepherds by a rogue, Mak. When the three shepherds search for the missing sheep in Mak’s home, his wife Gil pretends that the sheep is her newborn child. When the shepherds return a second time to offer gifts to Mak’s “child,” they dis- cover that the infant is the stolen sheep, and they proceed to toss Mak in a blanket. In the second section of the play, the shepherds are called by an angel to visit the newborn Christ child, to whom they also bring gifts. The Second Shepherds’ Play illustrates MYSTERY PLAYS most of the standard dramatic techniques of The mystery plays depicted scenes from the Bible, both the Old Testament and the New Testament. These plays were frequently medieval cycle plays. One technique is to presented in a cycle, a series of short dramas each of which dramatized take things out of their actual time period. an episode from the Bible. They were strung together over several Though this is a Bible story, the shepherds hours or several days. The play Noah comes from the Wakefield are not biblical characters but people of the mystery play cycle. The scene here shows Daniel Thorndike playing Middle Ages who complain about their lords Noah and staged at the Mermaid Theatre. (©Hulton Deutsch/Getty Images) and feudal conditions. And even though 278 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present  MIDDLE AGES THEATRE Ye a r c. e. C U LTU R E A N D P O LITI C S 475 “Dark ages” (476–1000) Traveling performers (c. 500–925) Byzantine theatre (similar to Roman theatre) (fifth through 525 Justinian becomes Byzantine emperor (527) seventh centuries) Muhammad born (c. 570) 575 675 Trulian Synod attempts to end performances in Byzantium (692) Traveling performers on European 725 Charles Martel defeats continent (500–975) Muslims near Poitiers (732) 775 Charlemagne crowned Holy Roman Emperor (800) 825 Beginning of Romanesque architecture (c. 830) Earliest European reference to a collar in the Quem quaeritis trope (c. 925) 925 harness of a horse that would allow the drawing of heavy loads and plow (920) Hrosvitha, a nun, writes Christian comedies 975 based on Terence (c. 970) Beowulf (1000) Norman conquest (1066) 1075 First Crusade (1095) 1125 Beginning of Gothic architecture (1140) 1175 English Magna Carta (1215) 1225 Oxford University flourishes (c. 1260) Roger Bacon’s De Computo 1275 naturali (1264) 1325 Black death apparently originates in India (1332) Vernacular religious drama flourishes: peak of medieval theatre (c. 1350–1550) Boccaccio’s Decameron (1353) Second Shepherds’ Play (c. 1375) 1375 Pope Urban VI in Rome; Clement VII at Avignon (1378) Peasant revolt in England (1381) Pride of Life (c. 1400) Chaucer dies (1400) Actor playing Judas at The Castle of Perseverance (c. 1425) 1425 Metz almost dies while Gutenberg invents printing by movable type (c. 1450) being hanged (1437) Constantinople falls to the Turks (1453) Pierre Patelin (c. 1470) Copernicus born (1473) Jean Bouchet, 1475 Martin Luther born (1483) Hans Sachs born (1494) pageant master, Columbus crosses Everyman (c. 1500) directs cycle at the Atlantic (1492) Cycle staged at Mons (1510) Poitiers (1508) 1525 John Heywood’s Johan Johan (1533) Chapter 11 Early Theatres: Greek, Roman, and Medieval 279 OUTDOOR STAGES AT VALENCIENNES A popular form of medieval staging, especially on the European continent, was a series of stage areas set alongside each other. In the one at Valenciennes, France, shown here in a color rendering of the original stage set, the action would move from one area to the next. At the far left is heaven or paradise, at the right is hell with a hell mouth out of which devils came. In between are other “mansions” representing various locales. (©Falkenstein Foto/Alamy Stock Photo) Christ is not born until the close of the play, they pray to him and to various saints throughout the initial section. Another technique is to mix different types of drama. Though the play dramatizes the birth of the Christian savior, this serious event is preceded by an extended comic section, reflecting the influence of secular farce on medieval religious drama. In the later Middle Ages, a tradition of non- religious folk comedies made a significant contribution to the theatrical activity of the period. In the chapter “Creating the Dramatic Script,” we discussed the two major dramatic structures of Western theatre—climactic and episodic. The seeds of epi- sodic form are found in medieval religious drama. This structure has numerous episodes and is expansive rather than restrictive in terms of time, place, and numbers of characters. In The Second Shepherds’ Play, a forerunner of this form, the action shifts abruptly from a field to Mak’s hut and to Christ’s manger some distance away; also, comic and serious elements are freely intermingled. We should mention that secular theatre and drama also existed during the Middle Ages. In France and Germany, for example, many popular farces were written and performed. They are a continuation of the tradition of popular enter- tainment discussed earlier in this chapter. It is medieval religious drama, however, which is most remembered today. Mansions Individual scenic units used for the staging of religious dramas Medieval Theatre Production in the Middle Ages. Large-scale productions of mystery plays took place in what is now Spain, France, Wagon stages Low the Netherlands, Belgium, and England. In some cases, most often on the conti- platform mounted on nent of Europe, stages were set up in a large town square, behind which were wheels or casters by means placed the individual scenic units—the mansions—one for each of the plays in a of which scenery is moved cycle. In other cases, particularly in England and Spain, portable wagon stages— on- and offstage. whose appearance and mode of operation are still debated by scholars—moved 280 Part 4 Global Theatres: Past and Present  IN FOCUS: CONTEMPORARY PASSION PLAYS As we noted, mystery plays dealt with Biblical stories theatre, employs materials from scripts that were writ- from the Old and New Testament, dramatizing from the ten in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and juxta- Creation through the Crucifixion of Christ. Passion poses scenes from the Old Testament with t