Psychological Science: Emotion and Motivation - PDF

Michael S. Gazzaniga Psychological Science SIXTH EDITION Chapter 10 Emotion and Motivation ©2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.  What Are Emotions? Learning Objectives Distinguish between primary and secondary emotions. Discuss the roles that the insul...

Michael S. Gazzaniga Psychological Science SIXTH EDITION Chapter 10 Emotion and Motivation ©2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.  What Are Emotions? Learning Objectives Distinguish between primary and secondary emotions. Discuss the roles that the insula and the amygdala play in emotional experience. Compare and contrast the James- Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter- Singer two-factor theories of emotion. Define misattribution of arousal and excitation transfer.  What Are Emotions? The terms emotion, feeling, and mood are often used interchangeably in everyday language, but psychologists distinguish between them. – Emotion: an immediate, specific negative or positive response to environmental events or internal thoughts  What Are Emotions? – For psychologists, emotion (sometimes called affect) has three components: a physiological process (e.g., heart beating fast, sweating) a behavioral response (e.g., eyes and mouth opening wide) a feeling that is based on cognitive appraisal of the situation and interpretation of bodily states (e.g., I’m scared!) – Mood: diffuse, long-lasting emotional states that do not have an identifiable object or trigger Rather than interrupting what is happening, 10.1 Emotions Vary in Valence and Arousal Primary emotions: emotions that are innate, evolutionarily adaptive, and universal (shared across cultures); they include: – anger – fear – sadness – disgust – happiness – surprise – contempt 10.1 Emotions Vary in Valence and Arousal Secondary emotions: blends of primary emotions; they include: – remorse – guilt – submission – shame – love – bitterness – jealousy 10.1 Emotions Vary in Valence and Arousal Emotions are plotted along two continuums: – Valence: how negative or positive emotions are – Arousal: how arousing emotions are; describes physiological activation or increased autonomic responses (such as increased heart rate,  10.2 Emotions Have a Physiological Component Emotions involve activation of the autonomic nervous system to prepare the body to meet environmental challenges.  Limbic System In 1937, the neuroanatomist Papez proposed that many subcortical brain regions are involved in emotion. – MacLean expanded this list of regions and called it the limbic system.  Limbic System We now know that many brain structures outside the limbic system are involved in emotion and that many limbic structures are not central to emotion per se. – The hippocampus is important mostly for memory. – The hypothalamus is important mostly for motivation.  Limbic System For understanding emotion, the most important are the insula and the amygdala. – The insula receives and integrates somatosensory signals from the entire body. – The amygdala processes the emotional significance of stimuli, and it generates immediate emotional and behavioral reactions.  Limbic System – People with damage to the amygdala do not develop conditioned fear responses to objects associated with danger.  Amygdala and Cognition Emotional events are likely to increase activity in the amygdala, and that increased activity is likely to improve long-term memory for the event. – perception of social stimuli (e.g. when we decipher the emotional meanings of facial expressions Example: trustworthiness (see next slide) Insert Figures 10.5 a, b Here Are Lie Detector Tests Valid? – A polygraph is an electronic instrument that assesses the body’s physiological response to questions. – The use of polygraphs is highly controversial. continue to be used by criminal investigators and federal agencies, such as the FBI and CIA. 10.3 Are Lie Detector Tests Valid? – The differences between the physiological responses to the control questions and critical questions is the measure used to determine whether the person is lying. Problem: confirmation bias There Are Three Major Theories of Emotion James-Lange theory The Cannon-Bard theory The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory  James-Lange Theory In 1884, William James asserted that a person’s interpretation of the physical changes in a situation leads that person to feel an emotion. – A similar theory was independently proposed by the physician and psychologist Carl Lange. – James-Lange theory of emotion: people perceive specific patterns of bodily responses, and as a result of that perception they feel emotion.  James-Lange Theory One implication of the counterintuitive James-Lange theory is that if you mold your facial muscles to mimic an emotional state, you activate the associated emotion. – Facial expressions trigger the experience of emotions, not the other way around. – This idea is the facial feedback hypothesis. In other words, putting on a smile can trigger a happy response.  Cannon-Bard Theory Walter B. Cannon and Philip Bard proposed that the mind and body experience emotions independently.  Cannon-Bard Theory Cannon-Bard theory of emotion: Information about emotional stimuli is sent simultaneously to the cortex and the body and results in emotional experience and bodily reactions, respectively. – As a result, we experience two separate things at roughly the same time: an emotion and a physical reaction.  Schacter-Singer Two-Factor Theory The social psychologists Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer (1962) saw some merit in both theories and proposed a two-factor theory. – Two-factor theory of emotion: A label applied to physiological arousal results in the experience of an emotion. Schacter-Singer Two-Factor Theory – When people misidentify the source of their arousal, it is called misattribution of arousal.  How Are Emotions Adaptive? Emotions are adaptive because they prepare and guide successful behaviors. – Negative and positive experiences have guided our species to behaviors that increase the probability of our surviving and reproducing. –.  Facial Expressions Communicate Emotion Charles Darwin argued that expressive aspects of emotion are adaptive because they communicate how we are feeling. – Facial expressions provide many clues about whether our behavior is pleasing to others or whether it is likely to make them reject, attack, or cheat us. – Facial expressions, like emotions themselves, provide adaptive information.  Facial Expressions Communicate Emotion – Dunlap (1927) demonstrated that the mouth better conveys emotion than the eyes, especially for positive affect. – Researchers showed identical facial expressions in different contexts and found that the context profoundly altered how people interpreted the emotion.  Facial Expressions Across Cultures Darwin argued that the face innately communicates emotions understandable by all people, regardless of culture. Research has found general support for cross-cultural congruence in identifying some facial expressions; support is strongest for happiness and weakest for fear and disgust.  Display Rules Differ Across Cultures and Between the Sexes Display rules: rules learned through socialization that dictate which emotions are suitable to given situations – The emotions most closely associated with women are related to caregiving, nurturance, and interpersonal relationships. – The emotions associated with men are related to dominance, defensiveness, and competitiveness.  Emotions Strengthen Interpersonal Relations In interacting with others, we use emotional expressions as powerful nonverbal communications. – Nonverbal displays of emotions signal inner states, moods, and needs Theorists have reconsidered interpersonal emotions in view of humans’ evolutionary need to belong to social groups. This nonverbal apology is an appeasement that elicits forgiveness in others, thereby repairing and maintaining relationships.  How Are People Motivated? Motivation: a process that energizes, guides, and maintains behavior toward a goal.  Drives Motivate the Satisfaction of Needs – Need: a state of biological or social deficiency  Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Maslow believed that people are driven by many needs, which he arranged into a need hierarchy. – Need hierarchy: Maslow’s arrangement of needs, in which basic survival needs must be met before people can satisfy higher needs.  Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Self-actualization: a state that is achieved when one’s personal dreams and aspirations have been attained. – Maslow’s hierarchy is more useful as an indicator of what might be true about people’s behaviors than of what actually is true about them.  Drive Reduction and Homeostasis Drive: a psychological state that, by creating arousal, motivates an organism to satisfy a need. For biological states such as thirst or hunger, basic drives help animals maintain steadiness, or equilibrium. – Homeostasis: the tendency for bodily functions to maintain equilibrium  Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation: – The pursuit of an activity for it’s own sake (and the satisfaction it brings) Intrinsic Reinforcer  Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation – The pursuit of an activity for external rewards (i.e. money, recognition or praise:) Extrinsic Reinforcers  Pleasure/Pain and Approach/Avoidance Motivation Sigmund Freud proposed that drives are satisfied according to the pleasure principle, which drives people to seek pleasure and avoid pain. – The concept of hedonism refers to humans’ desire for pleasantness.  Pleasure/Pain and Approach/Avoidance Motivation From an evolutionary perspective, positive and negative incentives are adaptive. – Approach motivations: to seek out food, sex, and companionship are typically associated with pleasure. – Avoidance motivation: encourages people to avoid negative outcomes, such as dangerous animals, because of the association with pain Animals prefer to eat sweets; sweetness usually indicates that food is safe to eat. By  Culture Plays a Role What people will eat is determined by a combination of personal experience and cultural beliefs; it has little to do with logic and everything to do with what we believe is food. – Unfamiliar foods may be dangerous or poisonous, so avoiding them is adaptive for survival.