Chapter 1-Major Themes of Anatomy and Physiology.pptx

1 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY CHAPTER 1: MAJOR THEMES OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY BIO 343  OUTLINE 1) INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2) LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION AND OVERVIEW OF ORGAN SYSTEMS 3) ANATOMICAL POSITIONS AND DIRECTIONAL TERMS 4)...

1 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY CHAPTER 1: MAJOR THEMES OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY BIO 343  OUTLINE 1) INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2) LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION AND OVERVIEW OF ORGAN SYSTEMS 3) ANATOMICAL POSITIONS AND DIRECTIONAL TERMS 4) BODY CAVITIES 5) HOMEOSTASIS 6) LIVING PROCESSES 2  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Two branches of science that deal with body’s structure and function Anatomy  The science that deals with body structures and relationships  First studied through dissection (cutting apart)  Imaging techniques (endoscopy, ultrasound, MRI, etc…) Physiology  The science that deals with body functions and mechanisms 3  ANATOMY—THE STUDY OF FORM Study the structure of the human body  Inspection; Palpation; Auscultation; Percussion Cadaver dissection  Cutting and separation of tissues to reveal their relationships Comparative anatomy  Study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species Rembrant’s “The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp”  It is used to study the evolution of species Gross anatomy  Study of anatomy at the visible or macroscopic level. Histology (microscopic anatomy)  Observation of tissue specimen under the microscope  Histopathology is the microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease 4  CLINICAL TECHNIQUES IN ANATOMY  Inspection Simply looking at body appearance  Palpation Feel body surface with hands (ex: pulses and breathing rates)  Auscultation Listen to body sounds with stethoscope (ex: abnormal fluid in lungs; heartbeat)  Percussion Tap on body surface and listen to sound emitted (ex: air in intestines) 5  STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Anatomy deals with structure, while physiology deals with function Structure and function of the body are closely related Structure of a part of the body allows performance of certain functions Examples:  Bones of the skull provide protection for the brain  Thin air sacs of the lungs permit movement of oxygen 6  AN INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY Branch of biology that deals with the functions and activities of life or of living matter The goal of physiology is to explain the physical and chemical factors that are responsible for the origin, development, and progression of life Can be divided into Human physiology, Animal physiology, Plant physiology, Cell physiology, and Comparative physiology etc… In human physiology, we attempt to explain the specific characteristics and mechanisms of the human body 7  OUTLINE 1) INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2) LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION AND OVERVIEW OF ORGAN SYSTEMS 3) ANATOMICAL POSITIONS AND DIRECTIONAL TERMS 4) BODY CAVITIES 5) HOMEOSTASIS 6) LIVING PROCESSES 8  5 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION There are five main levels of organization 1. Cells 2. Tissues 3. Organs 4. Organ Systems 5. Organisms 9  LEVEL 1-CELLULAR ORGANIZATION The basic living unit of the body is the cell. Each organ is an aggregate of many different cells held together by intercellular supporting structures The entire human body contains about ~37.2 trillion cells Cells can be put into 4 main groups:  Epithelial cells  Connective tissue cells  Muscle cells  Neurons Each type of cell is specially adapted to perform one or a few particular functions  For instance muscle cells are responsible for contraction and body 10  LEVEL 2- TISSUE  A tissue is a group of similar cells and cell products that arise from the same region of the embryo and work together to perform a specific structural or physiological role in an organ 4 types of tissue: 1. Connective 2. Epithelial 3. Muscle 4. Nervous Copyright Lumencandela 11  LEVEL 3 AND 4: ORGANS AND ORGAN SYSTEMS ORGANS (LEVEL 3)  Composed of at least two tissue types (example: blood vessels have layers of smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells and fibroblasts)  Perform specific physiological functions ORGAN SYSTEM (LEVEL 4) An organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform one or more functions 11 organ systems: The integumentary, Skeletal, Muscular, Nervous, Endocrine, Cardiovascular, Digestive, Urinary, Lymphatic, Respiratory, and Reproductive systems 12 13 14 15 16  LEVEL 5: ORGANISM It is the highest level of organization Living being composed of cells, tissue and all functionally related organs It needs the harmonious work of all organ systems to fully function © McGraw-Hill 17  OUTLINE 1) INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2) LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION AND OVERVIEW OF ORGAN SYSTEMS 3) ANATOMICAL POSITIONS AND DIRECTIONAL TERMS 4) BODY CAVITIES 5) HOMEOSTASIS 6) LIVING PROCESSES 18  ANATOMICAL POSITION Standard anatomical position: Supine position: lying Standing upright face up Facing forward Prone position: lying face Feet flat down Arms at the sides Palms forward © biologydictionary.net © The McGraw-Hill 19  Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. ANATOMICA L PLANES Frontal or coronal plane Transvers Transverse e plane plane Imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body parts There are 3 main planes Sagittal plane  Sagittal  Frontal or coronal  Transverse 20 SAGITTAL PLANE A vertical plane that divides the body into right and left sides Midsagittal plane divides the body into equal right and left sides Parasagittal plane divides the body into unequal right and left sides 21 Copyright 2009, John Wiley & FRONTAL AND TRANSVERSE PLANES Frontal or coronal plane Divides the body or an organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions Transverse plane Divides the body or an organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions Also called cross-sectional or horizontal plane Copyright: https://biologydictionary.net/coronal-plane/ 22 OBLIQUE PLANE AND SECTIONS Oblique plane Passes through the body or an organ at an angle Sections A section is one of the 2 surfaces (pieces) that results when the body is cut by a plane passing through it ex: Left and right sections of the sagittal plane 23  MAJOR DIRECTIONAL TERMS VENTRAL OR ANTERIOR (front of the body) DORSAL OR POSTERIOR (back of the body) 24  SUPERIOR OR INFERIOR Superior Towards the head; Higher or above Ex: The eyes are superior to the chin Inferior Away from the head; Lower/Under Ex: The stomach is inferior to the heart 25  DORSAL OR VENTRAL Dorsal or Posterior At the back of the body Ex: The brain is posterior to the forehead Ventral or Anterior At the front of the body Ex: The sternum is anterior to the heart 26  MEDIAL OR LATERAL Medial Medial = Toward the midline (middle) of the body Toward the midline of the body Lateral = Away from the Ex: The heart lies medial to the midline lungs (middle) of the body Lateral Farther from the midline of the body Ex: The arms are lateral to the chest 27  PROXIMAL OR DISTAL Proximal Nearest to the attachment or structure Ex: The elbow is proximal to the wrist Distal Farther away from attachment or the origin Ex: The fingers are distal to the shoulder 28 EXAMPLES OF USAGE © The McGraw-Hill Companies 29  OUTLINE 1) INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2) LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION AND OVERVIEW OF ORGAN SYSTEMS 3) ANATOMICAL POSITIONS AND DIRECTIONAL TERMS 4) BODY CAVITIES 5) HOMEOSTASIS 6) LIVING PROCESSES 30  BODY CAVITIES Spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support internal organs. Divided into dorsal and ventral cavities  Dorsal cavities: Cranial cavity Vertebral cavity (or spinal cavity)  Ventral cavity: Thoracic cavity Abdominopelvic cavity Copyright: NCI (original) / Mysid (SVG) via Wikimedia Commons 31  Dorsal Ventral DORSAL BODY CAVITY Near dorsal surface of body 2 subdivisions Cranial cavity  holds the brain  formed by skull Vertebral or spinal cavity  contains the spinal cord  formed by vertebral column Protected by the meninges, a three-layer membrane that encloses the brain and spinal cord. 32  Dorsal Ventral VENTRAL BODY CAVITY Near ventral surface of body 2 subdivisions Thoracic cavity above diaphragm Abdominopelvic cavity below diaphragm Diaphragm = large, dome-shaped muscle Organs within these cavities are called viscera (or internal organs) and are covered with serous membrane 33  THORACIC CAVITY  Also called the chest cavity  Within the thoracic cavity: Pleural cavity: -Two fluid-filled spaces that surround each lung Pericardial cavity: -Fluid-filled space that surrounds the heart Mediastinum cavity: -Central part of the thoracic cavity located between the lungs 34  ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY Extends from the diaphragm to the groin Encircled by the abdominal wall and bones and muscles of the pelvis Divided into two portions: Abdominal cavity Stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small and large intestines Pelvic cavity Urinary bladder, internal organs of reproductive system, and portions of the Copyright: NCI (original) / Mysid (SVG) via Wikimedia Commons large intestine 35  THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL CAVITY MEMBRANES Viscera (or internal organs) Organs of the thoracic and abdominal pelvic cavities Covered with serous membrane Serous membrane is a thin slippery membrane that covers the viscera within the thoracic and abdominal cavities Parts of the serous membrane: Parietal layer: Lines the wall of the cavities (outer layer) Visceral layer: Covers the viscera within the cavities 36 (inner layer)  THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL CAVITY MEMBRANES PLEURA  Serous membrane of the pleural cavities within the thoracic cavity  Visceral pleura (inner layer) clings to surface of lungs  Parietal pleura (outer layer) lines the chest wall PERICARDIUM  Serous membrane of the pericardial cavity within the thoracic cavity  Visceral pericardium covers the heart  Parietal pericardium lines the chest wall PERITONEUM  Serous membrane of the abdominal 37 cavity  PERICARDIUM AND PLEURAE Parietal layer Parietal pleura Pericardial cavity Pleural cavity Visceral pleura Visceral layer Lung Heart Diaphragm Diaphragm Pericardium Pleurae Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 38  BODY CAVITIES SUMMARY TABLE Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies * The thoracic cavity also contains a mediastinum cavity (not shown in the table) 39  OUTLINE 1) INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2) LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION AND OVERVIEW OF ORGAN SYSTEMS 3) ANATOMICAL POSITIONS AND DIRECTIONAL TERMS 4) BODY CAVITIES 5) HOMEOSTASIS 6) LIVING PROCESSES 40  HOMEOSTA SIS A Central Organizing Principle of Physiology Maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal environment despite external environmental changes. Examples include:  Body Temperature  Blood pressure  Blood glucose concentration  Water Balance  Blood pH 41 42  HOMEOSTASIS AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK Walter Cannon (1871-1945) Coined the term homeostasis State of the body fluctuates (dynamic equilibrium) within limited range around a set point Negative feedback keeps variable close to the set point Loss of homeostatic control causes illness or death Aging is the result of the body being unable to maintain homeostasis as effectively over time 43  HOMEOSTA SIS Homeostasis is a dynamic, not a static, process Physiological variables can change dramatically over a 24-hr. period, but the system is still in overall balance (ex: blood glucose level) When homeostasis is maintained, we refer to physiology; when it is not, we refer to pathophysiology 44  HOMEOSTASIS-BLOOD GLUCOSE  Blood glucose levels increase after eating. LEVEL Levels return to their set point via homeostasis  This is an example of dynamic constancy. Levels change over short periods of time, but remain relatively constant over long periods of time  Blood glucose level is kept within a narrow range of 70- 110mg/100ml 45 ORGANISM IN HOMEOSTASIS  The human body is maintained at a state in which the internal conditions are balanced.  When the balance is disrupted by an external or internal change, the body will adjust its internal conditions to restore homeostasis.  Illness or disease may occur if the balance is not properly restored. 46  NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOPS Feedback loops or systems are a common mechanism to control physiological processes A positive feedback system enhances the production of the product (reinforces the original action) A negative feedback system shuts the system off once the set point has been reached (stabilizes the variable) Because feedback mechanisms alter the original changes that triggered them (temperature, for example), they are called feedback loops 47  NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOP Sweating Core body temperature 37.5 oC (99.5 oF) Vasodilation 37.0 oC (98.6 Set point oF) 36.5 oC Vasoconstriction (97.7oF) Time Shivering Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Example: Brain senses changes in body temperature If too warm, vessels in the skin dilate (vasodilation) and sweating begins (heat- losing mechanism) If too cold, vessels in the skin constrict (vasoconstriction) and shivering begins (heat-gaining 48  POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOP Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Brain stimulates Enhances the action of an 3 pituitary gland to secrete original stimulus or amplifies oxytocin or reinforces the change (Ex: 4 Oxytocin stimulates during child birth) 2 uterine contractions Nerve impulses from cervix and pushes fetus Promotes an activity to finish transmitted to brain toward cervix Vicious circle - can lead to instability or even death (NOT always homeostatic) 1 Head of fetus pushes against cervix 49  COMPONENTS OF HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS Set point Set point = desired level of regulated variable Sensors (detectors) detect level Response Deviation of regulated variable and provide input to integrating Effectors Sensors center Integrating center (control center) compares set point to Control center actual level of regulated variable Integrating center sends output to 50  COMPONENTS OF HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL Example SYSTEMS of thermoregulation (negative feedback loop): Thermoregulatory system maintains core body temperature at a set point of ~37°C Detectors /Sensors- thermoreceptors (central and peripheral) Integrator/Control center - hypothalamus Effectors - sweat glands, blood vessels in skin, skeletal muscles 51  OUTLINE 1) INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2) LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION AND OVERVIEW OF ORGAN SYSTEMS 3) ANATOMICAL POSITIONS AND DIRECTIONAL TERMS 4) BODY CAVITIES 5) HOMEOSTASIS 6) LIVING PROCESSES 52  LIVING PROCESSES Basic Life Processes Distinguish living from non-living things 8 important life processes: 1. Organization 2. Cellular composition 3. Metabolism 4. Responsiveness and Movement 5. Homeostasis 6. Development 7. Reproduction 8. Evolution 53  LIFE PROCESSES Organization: Living things exhibit a far higher level of organization than nonliving things Cellular composition Living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells Metabolism: sum of all chemical processes breakdown of large molecules into small ones (catabolism) building new structural components (proteins) (anabolism) providing chemical energy for cells 54  LIFE PROCESSES Responsiveness and movement detect and respond to changes in internal or external environment some typical responses include muscle contraction, electrical signals, and hormone or glandular secretion Movement is motion of the body, an organ, a cell or cell component Homeostasis The ability of an organism to maintain stable internal conditions despite fluctuations in the external environment (e.g. stable temperature, blood pressure, body weight) 55  LIFE PROCESSES Development Differentiation: transformation of cells with no specialized functions into cells that are committed to a particular task Growth: increase in the number or size of cells or the material found between cells Reproduction formation of new cells or new individuals Evolution Occurs as a result of genetic change from generation to generation 56 The End 57