Chapter-1-Lesson-2-1.pptx

Lesson 2: The Self, Society and Culture SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF SOCIOLOGY Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. Sociology’s subject matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the divisions of race and s...

Lesson 2: The Self, Society and Culture SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF SOCIOLOGY Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. Sociology’s subject matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the divisions of race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social stability to radical change in whole societies. Unifying the study of these diverse subjects of study is sociology’s purpose of understanding how human action and consciousness both shape and are shaped by surrounding cultural and social structures. What is the Self? The self in contemporary literature is commonly defined by the following characteristics: 1. Separate 4. Self-contained 2. Independent 5. Consistent 3. Unitary 6. Private Separate The self is distinct from other selves. The self is always unique and has its own identity. One cannot be another person. Even twins are distinct from each other. Self-contained & Independent Self is self-contained and independent because in itself it can exist its distictness allow it to be self contained with its own thougths, chasracteristics, and volition. It does Consistent It has a personality that is enduring and therefore can be expected to persist for quite some time. Its consistency allows it to be studiesd, described, and measured, consistency also means that a particular self’s traits, characteristics, tendencies, and potentialities are more or less the same. Unitary It is the center of all experiences and thoughts that run through a certain person. It is like the chief command post in an individual where all processes, emotions, and Private Each person sorts out information, feelings and emotions, and thought processes within the self. The whole process is never accessible to anyone but the self. This last characteristic suggests that the self is isolated from the external world. it lived within its own world. Social constructivism focuses on the collaborative nature of learning. Knowledge develops through interaction with others. Social constructivist argue that the self should not be seen as a static entity that stays constant through and through. The self has to be seen as something that is in increasing flux, in a constant struggle with external reality and is malleable in its dealings with society.  SOCIETY A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS A social institution is a group or organization that has specific roles, norms, and expectations, which functions to meet the social needs of society. Social institutions are interdependent and continually interact and influence one another in everyday society. Each social institution plays a vital role in the functioning of society and the lives of the people that inhabit them. The five major social institutions are family, education, religion, economics, and government. The group we belong to influences how we see ourselves and how others see us. ELEMENTS OF SOCIETY LIKENESS RECIPROC CONFLICT AL AWARENES S SOCIE TY INTERDEPENDE COOPERATION DIFFERENCE NCE S LIKENESS - Likeness of members in a social group is the primary basis of their mutuality. Comradeship, intimacy, association of any kind or degree would be impossible without some understanding of each by the other, and that understanding depends on the likeness which each apprehends in the other. RECIPROCAL AWARENESS - Likeness is generative of reciprocity. Once some are aware of the mutual likeness, they differentiate against those who are not like them. The problem of likes and dislikes was associated to the social growth. All social action is based on reciprocal response. This alone, makes possible, the we-feeling. We feeling- can be seen as a sense of belongingness among a certain set of people based on common characteristics like religion, nationality, caste etc. CONFLICT - Conflict is an ever present phenomenon present in every human society. Not only cooperation but also conflict in necessary for the formation of society. They must coexist in a healthy society. Conflict is a process of struggle through which all things have come into-The DIFFERENCES existence. social structure of humanity is based on the family which rests upon the biological differences between the sexes, men and women. The economic structure of society is based upon division of labor in which the professions and economic activities of people are different or dissimilar. The culture of society prospers with the differences in thoughts ideals, viewpoints, etc. No two individuals are alike in their nature. For society to run smoothly there must be some differences. If people were exactly alike there would be little reciprocity, little give and take. They would contribute very little to one another. COOPERATION - If the members of the society do not work together for the common purposes, they cannot lead a happy and comfortable life. Cooperation avoids mutual destructiveness and results in economy. INTERDEPENDENCE - It is not possible for human being to satisfy his desire in isolation. He cannot live alone. He needs the help of others for his survival. Society fulfills all the needs of the people. Interdependence is very much visible in the present day society. Today not only countries but also continents depend upon one another. Likewise, communities, social groups and nations are also interdependent. ex. Vaccines, Medicine  CULTURE Every person lives in a society which is defined as a group of people sharing the same culture and typically interacts in a definite territory. Each society has culture or a way of life for those living in that specific society. MATERIAL CULTURE Material culture consists of the tools, attires, machines, decorations, ornaments, art, houses, money books, buildings, written records, religious implements and any other objects produced or used by humans to control his environment.  CO GN EL E ITIV UAG EM SYMBOLS N G E S NT LA E F NO LI E RM E B S S VALUES ELEMENTS OF NON MATERIAL CULTURE MARCEL MAUSS Marcel Mauss, (born May 10, 1872, Épinal, Fr.—died Feb. 10, 1950, Paris), French sociologist and anthropologist whose contributions include a highly original comparative study of the relation between forms of exchange and social structure written in his book The Gift (1925). His views on the theory and method of ethnology are thought to have influenced many eminent social scientists, including Claude Lévi-Strauss, A.R. Radcliffe- Brown, E.E. Evans-Pritchard, and Melville J. Herskovits.  The Gift-Exchange Theory Gift theory refers to the concept of exchange and hospitality in human relations. It is based on the idea of giving and receiving gifts as a way to establish and maintain social connections. Mauss emphasizes that exchanging gifts resulted from the will of attaching other people – 'to put people under obligations', because "in theory such gifts are voluntary, but in fact they are given and repaid under obligation“ The gift-exchange cycle entails obligations to give, to receive, and to return. Sanctions may exist to induce people to give, disapproval or loss of prestige resulting from a failure to do so. Refusal to accept a gift may be seen as refusal of social relations and may lead to enmity. What are the two faces of self according to Mauss? The Self and Culture According to Mauss, every self has two faces: Personne and Moi MOI – refers to a person's sense of who he is, his body, & his basic identity. PERSONNE – is composed of the social concepts of what it means to be who he is. Ex: How it is to be living in a particular institution, family, religion& nationality and how to behave as given the expectations & influences from others. How does culture affect self? Culture helps define how individuals see themselves and how they relate to others. A family's cultural values shape the development of its child's self- concept: Culture shapes how we each see ourselves and others. For example, some cultures prefer children to be quiet and respectful when around adults. CHARLES HORTON COOLEY Charles Horton Cooley, (born Aug. 17, 1864, Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S. —died May 8, 1929, Ann Arbor), American sociologist who employed a sociopsychological approach to the understanding of society. Cooley, the son of Michigan Supreme Court judge Thomas McIntyre Cooley, earned his Ph.D. at the University of Michigan in 1894. He had started teaching at the university in 1892, became a full professor of sociology in 1907, and remained there until the end of his life. Cooley believed that social reality was qualitatively different from physical reality and was therefore less amenable to measurement. Because of this view, he was more productive as a social theorist than as a research scientist. His Human Nature and the Social Order (1902, reprinted 1956) discussed the determination of the self through interaction with others.  Cooley theorized that the sense of self is formed in two ways: by one’s actual experiences and by what one imagines others’ ideas of oneself to be—a phenomenon Cooley called the “looking glass self.” This dual conception contributed to Cooley’s fundamental theory that the mind is social and that society is a mental construct. MAN DEVELOPS THE CONCEPT OF SELF WITH THE HELP OF OTHERS. MAN DOES NOT COME TO FORM OPINIONS ABOUT HIM UNLESS AND UNTIL HE COMES INTO CONTACT WITH OTHER PEOPLE AND KNOWS THEIR OPINIONS ABOUT HIMSELF. HE FORMS TO THE CONCEPT OF HIMSELF ON THE BASIS OF OPINIONS HELD BY OTHERS ABOUT HIM.  A PERSON UNDERSTAND AND ABLE TO CONSTRUCT A VIEW OF HIMSELF THROUGH OTHER PEOPLE’S PERCEPTION OR HOW OTHERS VIEW THEM. THIS IS THE PROCESS CALLED “LOOKING GLASS SELF” THREE ELEMENTS OF LOOKING GLASS SELF An individual in a social situation imagines how they appear to others. That individual imagines others’ judgment of that appearance. The individual develops feelings about and responds to those perceived judgments.  Digital Looking Glass Social media has brought with it the concept of the “cyber” self, Mary Aiken explains. The cyber self is the version of him or herself a person chooses to present on a digital platform. As in real life, the cyber self may interact with other individuals, receive social feedback, and align to social conformities. However, the differences between the cyber self and actual self are profound. A person may possess many versions of the cyber self, for example. He or she may present a professional self on LinkedIn, a casual self on Twitter, or an artistic self on Pinterest. The cyber self also continues to exist in social spaces even when people are not interacting with those environments in real time. In this way, social media users are never fully removed from exposure to judgment and criticism. And unlike the actual self, the cyber self is far more malleable when it comes to being shaped, updated, and perfected.  Digital Looking Glass These unique qualities of the cyber self raise a host of psychological issues and concerns, Aiken explains. Individuals may experience a greater sense of urgency to return to or remain in digital spaces. They may be increasingly involved in the curation of their online identities, possibly at the cost of developing their real- world selves. The host of digital platforms involved also brings into question whether one’s identity may become splintered, or whether developmental problems will result. All these consequences are more severe when digital users are young or in their teens.  GEORGE HERBERT MEAD’S THEORY THE SELF IS THE PERSON’S DISTINCT IDENTITY THAT IS DEVELOPED THROUGH SOCIAL INTERACTION. IN ORDER TO ENGAGE IN THIS PROCESS OF “SELF”, AN INDIVIDUAL HAS TO BE ABLE TO VIEW HIMSELF THROUGH THE EYES OF OTHERS. George Herbert Mead was born on February 27, 1863, in South Hadley, Massachusetts. His father, Hiram Mead, a minister in the Congregational Church, moved his family from Massachusetts to Ohio in 1869 in order to join the faculty of The Oberlin Theological Seminary. At Oberlin he taught homiletics and held the chair in Sacred Rhetoric and Pastoral Theology. Mead would attend Oberlin College from 1879– 1883, and matriculate at Harvard from 1887– 1888. At Harvard he studied with Josiah Royce, a philosopher deeply indebted to G.W.F. Hegel, who also left a lasting impression on Mead. (Mead met William James at Harvard, although he did not study with him. Almost immediately after graduation, Mead resided in William James's summer home tutoring his son Harry.) Mead's mother, Elizabeth Storrs Billings, was a devoutly religious woman, who taught at Oberlin for two years after the death of her husband in 1881. After his college years, Mead became a committed naturalist and non-believer, but he had struggled for years with the religious convictions that he had inherited from his family and community. Mead developed a concept that proposed a different stage of self-development. These stages are language, play and game. According to Mead, self-development and language are intimately tied. Through shared understanding of symbols, gestures and sound, language gives the individual the capacity to express himself or herself while at the same time comprehending what the other people are conveying. Language sets the stage for self-development. At this preparatory stage, children have no concept of right and wrong and only mimic adult behavior and language. The second stage for self-development is play. At this level, individuals role-play or assume the perspective of others. Role playing enables the person to internalize some other people’s perspectives; hence, he or she develops an understanding of how the other people feel about themselves (and about others, too) in a variety of situations. Meanwhile, the game stage is the level where the children not only internalizes the other people perspectives, he or she is also able to take into account societal rules and adheres to it. It is when children learn to relate to others by participating in organized games and activities. The game stage was essential to Mead because he believed it helped children learn to follow the rules, understand their role within a larger system, and understand the roles of others. Two Side of Self: I and Me Mead sees the person as an active process, not just a mere reflection of society. He further proposed two interactive facets of the self: the ‘I’ the and ‘me.’ The ‘me’ and the ‘I’ have didactic relationship, which is like a system of checks and balances. According to Mead, ‘me’ is the product of what the person has learned while interacting with others and with the environment. Learned behaviors, attitudes, and even expectations compromise the ‘me.’ The ‘me’ exercises social control over the self. It sees to it that rules are not broken. On the other hand, the ‘I’ is that part of the self that is unsocialized and spontaneous. It is the individual’s response to the community’s attitude toward the person. The ‘I’ presents impulses and drives. It enables him/her to express individualism and creativity. The ‘I’ does not blindly follow rules. It understands when to possibly bend or stretch the rules that govern the social interactions. It constructs a response based on what has been learned by the ‘me.’ LEV VYGOTSKY Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (Russian: Лев Семёнович Выго́ тский; Belarusian: Леў Сямёнавіч Выго́ цкі; November 17 [O.S. November 5] 1896 – June 11, 1934) was a Soviet psychologist, known for his work on psychological development in children. In order to fully understand the human mind, he believed one must understand its genesis. Consequently, the majority of his work involved the study of infant and child behavior, as well as the development of language acquisition (such as the importance Lev Vygotsky was a Russian teacher who is considered a pioneer in learning in social contexts. As a psychologist, he was also the first to examine how our social interactions influence our cognitive growth. He was convinced that learning occurred through interactions with others in our communities: peers, adults, teachers, and other mentors. Vygotsky sought to understand how people learn in a social environment and created a unique theory on social learning. He determined that teachers have the ability to control many factors in an educational setting, including tasks, behaviors, and responses. As a result, he encouraged more interactive activities to promote cognitive growth. Vygotsky also stated that culture was a primary determinant of knowledge acquisition. He argued that children learn from the beliefs and attitudes modeled by their culture. Vygotsky had a groundbreaking theory that language was the basis of learning. His points included the argument that language supports other activities such as reading and writing. In addition, he claimed that logic, reasoning, and reflective thinking were all possible as a result of language. Fundamentally, Vygotsky recognized that social settings and learning were closely entwined. Therefore one must identify and implement strategies that are effective in a social context. It is also important to note that the culture of each individual is created by their unique strengths, language, and prior experience. One of the ways that students gain knowledge is when they collaborate with their peers or mentors on activities that involve problem- solving skills and real-life tasks. VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO- CULTURAL THEORY Lev Vygotsky focused on the important contributions that society makes to individual development in his sociocultural theory of cognitive development. Thus, this theory emphasizes the interaction between how people develop and their culture. Furthermore, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development also suggests that human learning is, to a large extent, a social process. VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development didn’t only focus on how adults and peers influence individual learning. Also, it focuses on how cultural beliefs and attitudes impact the way instruction and learning take place. Thus, note that Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. Insofar, as it states that children, far from being mere passive recipients, build their own knowledge and their own schema from the information they receive. The Zone of Proximal Development One of the most important concepts in Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development is the According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development is the distance between the actual level of development determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development determined through problem- solving under the guidance or “scaffolding” of an adult or in collaboration with more capable peers. Essentially, the zone of proximal development includes all the knowledge and skills that a person can’t yet understand or develop on their own but can learn with guidance. As children improve their skills and knowledge, they progressively extend their zone of proximal development. Development This theory covers the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Children and adults are social creatures, so they rely on social interaction to encounter new experiences and activities, which they then learn. Because we are social creatures, our ability to learn a new skill is greatly affected by the presence of someone who already knows the skill. Vygotsky might have simply stated, “We learn by watching.”, though, of course, it’s more complicated than that. Language Development Vygotsky was particularly interested in the role of language in cognitive development. Given that language is vital to human interactions, he believed that language was the most important tool that human could utilize. Language, especially in the realm of collaborative dialogue, is the way the more knowledgeable other communications important information to a child. Vygotsky believed that there are three forms of language,  Social Speech – This is what Language Vygotsky referred to as the external communication that Development people use to talk with other people, and he believed that this form of language was typical in children from the age of two. Private Speech – This is what Vykotsky referred to as the internal communication that a person directs to themselves. It serves an intellectual function, and it is typical in children from the age of three. Silent Inner Speech – Vygotsky believed that this is what happens when private speech diminishes in its audibility until it become a self- regulating function. He believed Imaginative Play Adults may see children engaging in imaginative play, pretending to be pirates or princesses, and think that it’s just a fun way that children entertain themselves. What they may not realize, however, is the vital role that imaginative play serves in a child’s cognitive development. Imaginative play helps children to develop meaning and make sense of the world they live in. It also helps them to develop their thinking skills as well as their use of language. With imaginative play, children often engage in Imaginative Play This often involves children creating a story as well the characters involved in the story. This involves dialogues that they develop with the other children. It also involves exercising problem solving skills as they work out the plot of their story. The dialogues they create help them to develop their language as they imitate things that they have observed in the real world. Even when children engage in imaginative play by themselves, they engage in dialogues with themselves that help them to develop LEON FESTINGER Festinger believed that the sense SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY of self is influenced and affected Upward comparison occurs when by comparing with others. people compare themselves to someone they perceive to According to his social be superior (Wheeler, 1966). comparison theory, we learn about ourselves, the Downward comparison is defined by making a comparison with appropriateness of our behaviors, someone perceived to be as well as our social status by inferior (Wills, 1981) comparing aspects of ourselves with other people. Lateral social comparison refers to comparing yourself to someone you see as “equal” to you in various areas. HENRI TAJFEL & JOHN TURNER Social identity groups can give you a sense of: 1.Belonging: Being part of a group can instill feelings of connection and unity, giving individuals the comforting sense that they’re not alone in their experiences or perspectives. 2.Purpose: Group affiliations often come with shared goals or missions, which can provide direction and purpose to individual members. 3.Self-worth: Affiliating with a group can boost self- esteem as individuals derive pride from group achievements and a positive group image. 4.Identity: Groups provide a framework to understand oneself in the context of a larger community. They can help define who you are based on shared attributes, values, or goal  Social Identity Theory Stages: 1. Social Categorization This refers to the tendency of people to classify themselves and others into various social groups based on attributes like race, gender, nationality, or religion. We categorize objects to understand them and identify them and to understand the social environment. We use social categories like black, white, Australian, Christian, Muslim, or student because they are useful. Categorization helps individuals simplify the social environment but can also lead to stereotyping. If we can assign people to a category, that tells us things about those people. Similarly, we find out things about ourselves by knowing what categories we belong to. We define appropriate behavior by referencing the norms of groups we belong to, but you can only do this if you can tell who belongs to your group. An individual  Social Identity Theory Stages: 2. Social Identification Once individuals categorize themselves as members of a particular group, they adopt the identity of that group. This means they begin to see themselves in terms of group characteristics and adopt its norms, values, and behaviors. If for example you have categorized yourself as a student, the chances are you will adopt the identity of a student and begin to act in the ways you believe students act (and conform to the norms of the group). There will be an emotional significance to your identification with a group, and your self-esteem will become bound up with group membership.  Social Identity Theory Stages: 3. Social Comparison After categorizing and identifying with a group, individuals compare their group to others. This comparison is often biased in favor of one’s own group, leading to in-group favoritism. This is critical to understanding prejudice, because once two groups identify themselves as rivals, they are forced to compete in order for the members to maintain their self-esteem. Competition and hostility between groups is thus not only a matter of competing for resources like jobs but also the result of competing identities. Huddy, L. (2001). From social to political identity: A critical examination of social identity theory. Political Psychology, 22(1), 127-156.  IN-GROUP (US) and OUT-GROUP (THEM) Within the context of SIT, the ‘in-group’ refers to the group with which an individual identifies, while ‘out-group’ pertains to groups they don’t identify with. The theory asserts that people have a natural inclination to perceive their in-group in a positive light while being neutral or even negative towards out-groups, thus enhancing their self-image. It’s important to note that ingroups and outgroups are fluid concepts. The group an individual identifies with can change based on context, environment, or over time. Moreover, everyone belongs to multiple ingroups across different facets of their identity. The categorization into ingroups and outgroups also plays a significant role in intergroup dynamics, biases, and conflicts. ERVING GOFFMAN Erving Goffman (1922 – 1982) was a Canadian-American sociologist, social psychologist and writer, considered by some "the most influential American sociologist of the twentieth century". He was the 73rd president of the American Sociological Association. His major areas of study include the sociology of everyday life, the social interaction, social construction of self and social framing of experience. One of his main theories suggests people desire to control the impressions that other people form about them, by altering their own setting, appearance and manner. Nowadays, despite years have gone by, his theory is still extremely valuable. Especially when people deal with social networks, aiming at an “image” that hides any human - imperfection.  SELF-PRESENTATION THEORY According to Goffman’s theory, social life is grounded on the cut-off between front and backstage. Where the public audience hardly access to the backstage and vice versa. In these scenarios, the “self” (the consciousness) is a contingent element, anything but stable. It changes accordingly with the situation, the environment and the target audience too. He assumed that there is a limited number of fronts that people can face and, usually, people are fully aware about each of them, both individually and at a group level. Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1959, pp. 1-3, 7-8, 15-16. Front Stage Behavior The World is a Stage The idea that people play different roles throughout their daily lives and display different kinds of behavior depending on where they are and the time of day is a familiar one. Most people, consciously or unconsciously, behave somewhat differently as their professional selves vs. their private or intimate selves. According to Goffman, people engage in "front stage" behavior when they know that others are watching. Front-stage behavior reflects internalized norms and expectations for behavior shaped partly by the setting, the particular role one plays in it, and one's physical appearance. The "performances" people put on with those around them follow familiar rules and expectations for what they should do and talk about with one another in each setting. People also engage in front-stage behavior in less public places, such as among colleagues at work and as students in classrooms. Backstage Behavior What We Do When No One Is Looking When people engage in backstage behavior, they are free of the expectations and norms that dictate front-stage behavior. Given this, people are often more relaxed and comfortable when backstage; they let their guard down and behave in ways that reflect their uninhibited or "true" selves. They cast off elements of their appearance required for a front-stage performance, such as swapping work clothes for casual clothes and loungewear, as well as how they speak. In private, people behave in ways that they would never in public. However, even people's backstage lives tend to involve others, such as housemates, partners, and family members. One may not behave as formally with these individuals as standard front-stage behavior dictates, but they may not fully let down their guards either.  GEERT HOFSTEDE Individualism vs Collectivism According to Hofstede’s research, people, in individualistic societies, are expected to care for themselves and their immediate families only; while in collectivist cultures, people view themselves as members of larger groups, including extended family members, and are expected to take responsibility in caring for each other.  Individualism vs Collectivism INDIVIDUALISM COLLECTIVISM In individualistic societies, Collectivism indicates that the emphasis lies on there is a greater importance personal achievement and placed on the goals and well- rights, prioritizing the needs being of the group. A person’s of oneself and one’s self-image in this category is immediate family. defined as “We” and individuals from collectivist backgrounds often prioritize relationships and loyalty more prominently than those in individualistic cultures. Gender and the Self A gender stereotype is a generalized view or preconception about attributes or characteristics, or the roles that are or ought to be possessed by, or performed by, women and men. A gender stereotype is harmful when it limits women’s and men’s capacity to develop their personal abilities, pursue their professional careers and/or make choices about their lives. Further, gender stereotypes compounded and intersecting with other stereotypes have a disproportionate negative impact on certain groups of women, such as women from minority or indigenous groups, women with disabilities, women from lower caste groups or with lower economic status, migrant women, etc. Gender stereotyping refers to the practice of ascribing to an individual woman or man specific attributes, characteristics, or roles by reason only of her or his membership in the social group of women or men. Gender stereotyping is wrongful when it results in a violation or violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms.  Gender Stereotypes in current time Boys/Men Girls/Women The self is shaped within a particular context based on what is taught and asserted by the society and culture and what “fits”.