Chapter 1 Social Psychology PDF

Chapter 1: social psychology - scientific study of the feelings, thoughts, and behaviours of individuals in social situations Explain how Milgram’s obedience study, the Good Samaritan Study reveal the power of the situation. - Study shows thar ordinary people can engage i...

Chapter 1: social psychology - scientific study of the feelings, thoughts, and behaviours of individuals in social situations Explain how Milgram’s obedience study, the Good Samaritan Study reveal the power of the situation. - Study shows thar ordinary people can engage in harmful behaviours under the influence of situational factors like… Authority Incremental Commitment ( FOOT-IN-THE-DOOR EFFECT) Ambiguity of Responsibility Even when such actions conflict with personal values Define the fundamental attribution theory (Error) and know how to apply it. Failure to recognize the importance of situational influences on behaviour, together with the tendency to overemphasize dispositions (the belief, values, personality traits, and abilities that guide behaviour --does not cause behaviour) For example, if I assume that my friend George missed our study date because he is lazy and doesn’t care about me, I would be making a fundamental attribution error. - Assuming that that your friend is lazy because he missed the study date – is Fundamental attribution error - Study suggest that we need to take account of situational influences that made your friend miss the study date Define Gestalt psychology and explain why it is relevant to our understanding of social behaviour. - People perceive objects not by mean of some passive and unbiased perception of objective reality BUT by active, usually nonconscious interpretation of what the object represents - This leads to naïve realism – idea that we see the world directly in an unbiased way - \ o We are less biased than others Define channel factors - Help explain why certain circumstances that seen unimportant can have great consequences for the behaviour, either facilitating or blocking it the “nudge” concept— - Small, innocuous—seeming prompts that can have big effects on behaviour Austrians vs Germans organ donor study - Austria uses opt-out system for organ donation, where the individual are automatically registered unless they take action to withdraw – Resulted in participation - Germany uses opt-in system, requiring people to actively register – Resulting in only 12% participation - Nudges structures options to encourage desired behaviour Define construals and be prepared to identify examples.  - How we interpret situations and behaviours through our wishes, need, and past experiences Understand what schemas are including: a. How they relate to stereotypes - They are schemas that we have for people of various kinds b. How they are formed - Schema consist of generalized knowledge about the physical and social world - E.g., what kind of behaviour to expect when dealing with a religious teacher, a professor, or a police officer,etc. c. What happens (broadly speaking) when they are violated - Disrupts automatic processing, forcing people to engage in deeper reflection, adapt their expectation, or experience emotional responses. Define how evolutionary psychology explain social behaviour while understanding how this theory draws on: explains social behaviour as the results of evolutionary processes that shaped human cognition, emotions, and behaviour to enhance survival and reproductive success a. natural selection - Individuals with certain traits will be better able than others to survive, reproduce, and raise their offspring to the age of viability - The more successful individuals will pass their traits on to their offsprings through genes b. cross culturally present human behaviour (language, theory of mind and emotional bonds) - Theory of mind: Ability to recognize that other people have beliefs and desires and that understanding others beliefs and desired allows us to understand and predict their behaviour What are the brain regions we share with other mammals Amygdala: involved in gut feelings – fear Nucleus Accumbens: rich is dopamine recepetors for dopamine – projects to the prefrontal cortex, were we process complex thoughts and emotions - Signals to the individuals in quick and automatic fashion what is rewarding in the environment what makes the human brain unique and how is it important for human social behaviour? - The size of the human neocortex (layers of neurons on top of folder region of the brain) - Significant areas of the neocortex are involved in reasoning, abstract thoughts, and memory - Enables us to understand the feelings of others, intentions, desires, and beliefs Describe the naturalistic fallacy and how it may relate to prejudice against certain groups. - The ways things are is the way they should be – has no logical foundation - Can perpetuate prejudice by providing a veneer of legitimacy to biases and injustices, making them seem immutable or morally acceptable  - E.g., the argument that women are “naturally” suited to domestic roles of that certain racials groups are “naturally” less intelligent or capable, perpetuating prejudice What is the difference between automatic and conscious processing? Prepare for its application. - Autonomic process give rise to implicit attitudes and beliefs that CAN’T be readily controlled by the conscious mind e.g., people often react quickly to frightening situations so that can immediate actions to save themselves from danger - Controlled, conscious processing results in explicit attitudes and beliefs that we’re aware of – may become nonconscious over time e.g, aware of using a mathematical formula to resolve a math problem What are the differences between individualistic and collectivistic cultures---know relevant studies: - Individualistic -- culture in which people tend to think of themselves as distinct social entities, ties to each other by voluntary binds of affection and organizational memberships BUT essentially separated from other people and having attributes that exist in the absence of any connection to others e.g., Insistence on ability to act on one’s own, Need for individual distinctiveness - Collectivistic -- A culture in which people tend to define themselves as part of collective, inextricably tied to others in their group and placing less importance on individuals freedom or personal control over their lives e.g., Preference for collective action, Desire for Harmonious relations within the group, … a. Kim and Markus 1999 Pen study, - Korean and American Participants were offered a pen as a gift for being in a study – tendent to be of 2 different colour - Americans tended to choose the unique colour and Koreans the common colour b. The Wang et al., 2017 brain imaging study with Chinese participants, - Study had images of their brain taken and the completed measures of how independent or interdependent they were - Those participants who were more independent actually showed denser gray matter in a region of the cortex that supports thought about the self (the ventromedial prefrontal cortex) and a region of the brain that is believed to support thought of self-agency (the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) c. Nicole stephens study on uniqueness in working-class vs middle-class. - Asked people how they would feel if a friend bought a car just like one they had recently bought themselves  - Middle-class people – would be disappointed because they like to be unique - Working-class people – be very happy to share that similarity with a buddy Regardless of if a society is more collectivistic or individualistic- when do societies tend to become tighter? They tend to become unified/tight when facing a common threat What is the difference between “loose” and “tight” societies? - Tight = a society with prevailing norms are very explicit and powerful, and people are evry inclined to follow them - Loose = a society with weaker norms and compliance is less certain Explain how social psychology can improve critical thinking - By engaging in exercises that make use of the scientific tools you develop by reading on a rage of topics - Apply critical to everyday life CHAPTER 2 (Research Methods) Distinguish between - folk theories -- theories that individuals use to explain the world around them, not supported by any scientific proof -- build upon personal experiences, cultural norms, and social environment (intuition) - social psychological theories -- frameworks that explain how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others – supported by empirical data – scientifically proven - explain why we cannot always rely on our casual observations of the social world o it can be bias, subjective, and limited scope ○ Describe hindsight bias Tendency to believe that after learning about some outcome, that could have predicted it – when In fact you could have not ○ Describe confirmation bias When evaluating a proposition, people are more readily and robustly seek out evidence that will support the proposition rather than information that will contradict it e.g., Jennifer Croker (1982) study - asked group 1 to determine working out the day before an important tennis match makes players more likely to win - asked group 2 to determine working out the day before an important tenner match makes players more likely to win - Participants tended to seek out all the necessary information that could potentially confirm the proposition they were investigated Explain what the scientific method entails  - logical approach scientists use to investigate phenomena, acquire new knowledge, or correct and integrate previous knowledge. It relies on empirical evidence, careful observation, and experimentation. ○ theory -- a set or related proposition intended to describe some phenomenon or aspect of the world ○ hypothesis – a prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances What is observational research? - Look at a phenomenon in a systemic way, with a view understand what is going on, and coming up with hypotheses about why things are the way they are o e.g., Darwin’s observations of finches in the Galapagos Island - participant observation -- observing some phenomenon at close range o e.g., Anthropologist who lives with a group of people to make observations and guesses on the peoples’ behaviour and beliefs What is archival research? - Look at evidence found in archives of various kinds o E.g., Nisbett et Al. (1993) on cultures of honor studies FBI reports of homicides and found, that homicides were more common in the U.S. South than North What are surveys? - Most common type of study, involving asking people questions o E.g., Investigator is trying to discern the beliefs or attitudes of some group of people -- freshmen at a particular university -- Salvadorians living in Canada What is correlational research? - Measures two or more variables and examine whether they are related ○ Explain why a correlational design cannot establish causation § Because the relationship can be explained by a third variable that is not measured ○ Explain how the experimental design overcomes these limitations, allowing us to establish causation Enables investigator to make strong inferences about why a relationship exists or how different situations affect people’s behaviour Distinguish between - Independent Value -- o In correlational research à variable is measured  o In experimental research à variable is manipulated; it is hypothesized to be the cause of a particular outcome - Dependent Value -- o In experimental research, the variable that is measured; it is hypothesized to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable Explain what a control condition is - Baseline condition comparable to the experimental condition (placebo effect) What are some advantages of experiments? 1. Cause-and-Effect 2. Control over variables 3. Replicability 4. Objectivity and Precisions 5. Hypothesis testing What is a natural experiment? - Naturally occurring event or phenomenon with somewhat different conditions that can be compared with almost as much rigor as conditions manipulated by the investigator in an experiment o E.g., When China introduced several measures to combat air pollution in Beijing before and during the 2008 Olympic games § Children born in August 2008 had higher birth weights that children born the same days in 2007-2009 § DOES NOT establish causation but SUGGESTS that air pollution negatively affects the health of the fetus What is a field experiment? - An experiment conducted in the real world, usually with participants who are not aware that they are in a study of any kind o E.g., Researchers study the reactions of people who are asked to give up their seat on an uncrowded bus or train Describe the three types of validity - External Validity -- How well the results of a study generalized to context outside the conditions of the laboratory - Internal Validity -- In experimental research, confidence that only the manipulated variable could have produced the results - Measurement Validity -- The correlation between a measure and some outcome is supposed to predict factors that may threaten these different types of validity  - External Validity 1. Sampling Bias – sample does not represent the population of interest 2. Laboratory conditions may not reflect real world settings 3. Hawthorne Effect – Participants behave differently because they know they are being observed - Internal Validity 1. Selection Bias – Assignment to conditions is NOT random – may be the reason for observed difference 2. Regression to the mean – Extreme scores tend to move closer to the average upon resting - Measurement Validity 1. The measure does not accurately reflect the concept being studied 2. Low Reliability – The measure produces inconsistent result when repeated Explain what a confound is; be prepared to identify examples - extraneous variable that influences both the independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable (DV) in a way that creates a false association or alternative explanation for the observed results. o E.g., Children who watch violent TV shows are compared to those who watch non-violent TV to measure aggressions levels o Confound -- Children who choose violent TV programs might already have more aggressive tendencies due to personality or parenting styles Explain the logic of null hypothesis testing what it means for a finding to be statistically significant - Measure of the probability that a given result could have occurred by chance by alone Identify the factors affecting the size of the p-value (statistical significance) - When the strength of a relationship is large, it is less likely to have occurred by random change alone o Leads to a smaller p-value, making the result more likely to statistically significant - A large sample size reduces the impact of random variation and provides a more accurate estimate of the true effect or relationship in the population o Large sample à Smaller p-value Explain what a replication study is and why it is important - Involves the reproduction of research results by the original investigator or by someone else - If a result is genuine or valid, it should be possible for scientists to replicate it What is involved in - informed consent -- participant’s agreement to participate after learning about all relevant aspects of the procedure - debriefing -- informs participants about the broad questions being addressed, the specific hypotheses being tested, and the potential social values of the result o helpful to investigators by letting them know whether participants are interpreting the stimuli used in the experiment as the investigator intended Explain the function of an Institutional Review Board - A committee that examines research proposals and makes judgements about the ethical appropriateness of the research Describe the factors that IRBs consider in their evaluation of research proposals - Assess the potential risks to participants - Weigh the benefits of the research against the risks - Informed Consent - Participants are selected to ensure justice and fairness - Confidentiality and data protection - Scientific validity - Conflict of interest that could bias the research - Debriefing if the research involves deception Chapter 3 -The Social Self Describe self-schemas and the role they play in shaping our social experiences - A cognitive structure, derived from experience, that represents a person’s beliefs and feelings about the self, in both general and specific situations - It influences attention, interpretation, memory, and emotions, they play significant role in shaping our social experiences and reinforcing our self-vies Describe working self-concept and its parts - Subset of self-knowledge that is brought to mind in a particular context – combination of your core self and other self-concept - E.g., notion of the self associated with relationships are likely to be the mind’s focus when with a romantic partner Describe the spontaneous self-concept - Aspects of the self that are the most salient and come to mind automatically in a particular moment or context - Highlights the part of our identity that are most relevant, distinctive, or meaningful in a given situation, shaping how we respond to social experiences McGuire and Padawer-Singer (1976) study (Distinctiveness Theory) - Proposed à tend to highlight what makes us unique and distinctive in a given situation  - Asked 6th graders at different schools to describe themselves – wrote 12 statements referring to their recreational activities, attitudes, friends, and school activities - Children defined themselves with respect to how they differed from their classmates - Basically, if they represented the minority in their class, such as age, ethnicity, gender, they were more likely to mentioned them - They are considered “rare” à identity unique and distinctive from others Describe social comparison theory; define and compare - Idea that people compare themselves to other people to obtain an accurate assessment of their own opinions, abilities, and internal states downward social comparisons - Occurs when someone compares themselves to others who are worse off or performing less well in a particular domain - Purpose is to help us define ourselves favorably and boost our self-esteem - Consequences: can lead to dismissing other or don’t think about doing better upward social comparisons - Occurs when individuals compare themselves to others who are better off or performing more successfully in a particular domain - Purpose is so it can serve as motivation to improve or set higher standards for oneself – can provide role models - Consequences: can lead to a feeling of inferiority Define self-esteem - The overall positive or negative evaluations people have of themselves - Trait self-esteem: a person’s enduring level of self-regard across time – fairly stable - Sate self-esteem: the dynamic, changeable self-evaluations a person experiences as momentary feelings about the self – changes from one context to another Describe the contingencies of self-worth model - People’s self-esteem rises and falls with successes and failures in the domains that are most important to their self-worth - The more de derive our self-worth from multiple, distinct, domains, the more likely we are to avoid feeling devastated by the setback in any one domain Describe and compare the motives driving self-evaluation 1. Self-Enhancement: The desire to maintain, increase, or protect one’s positive self-views o Strategies: § Better than average affect – self-serving construal § Self-Affirmation theory à people efforts to maintain an overall sense of self-worth when confronted with the feedback or events that threaten a valued image 2. Self-Verification: people strive for others to view them as they view themselves; such verification of one’s view of the self helps people maintain a sense of coherence and predictability o Strategies:  § Seek out appraisal and relationship partners that confirm our preexisting self-views § Displays cues that increase the likelihood that others will see us as we see ourselves Define the better-than-average effect and how self-serving construal’s allow us to maintain positive views of ourselves - The finding that most people think they are above average on various personality traits and ability dimension - People form self-serving interpretation – when thinking about themselves—about particular traits - People take advantage of the ambiguity of --what Is it like to be above average in a particular trait—allows them to think highly of themselves Describe self-handicapping - Tendency to engage in self-defeating behaviour in order to have an excuse ready should one perform poorly or fail - E.g., A student procrastinates studying for an exam. If they fail, they can attribute it to lack of preparation, not low intelligence -- protecting desired public self if you fail self-presentation face - Presenting the person, we would like others to believe we are face - The public image of ourselves that we want others to have Define self-regulation and describe strategies people can use to self-regulate - Process by which people initiate, alter, and control their behaviour in pursuit of a goal - Goal directed actions are motivated by standards in the form of ideal (self that embodies people’s wishes and aspirations) and ought selves (concerned with the duties, obligations, and external demands people feel they are compelled to honor). - Promotion focus: Strategies o Self-regulation of behaviour with respect to ideal-self standards; a focus on attaining positive outcomes through approach-related behaviour - Prevention Focus: Strategies o Self-regulation of behaviour with respect ought-self standards; a focus on avoiding negative outcomes through avoidance-related behaviour - Implementation intention: o An “if-then” plan to engage in a goal-directed behaviour (“then”) whenever a particular cue (“if”) is encountered Chapter 5: What are emotions and how do they arise (what are cognitive appraisals and how do they relate to emotions)? - Emotions are a brief, specific response, involving appraisal, experience, expressions, and physiology, that helps people meet goals, including social goals - Arise because of construals = o Appraisal – the interpretation an individual gives to a situation that gives rise to the experience of the emotion  § Primary appraisal – initial evaluation of whether an event is relevant to one’s goal or well-being – positive negative, or neutral § E.g., You see a snake in the woods à primary appraisal determines that this is a threat § Secondary Appraisal – one’s ability to cope with or respond to the event § E.g., After determining the snake is threatening, you evaluate your options: can you escape? Do you have control over the situation? What is the difference between Emotions: involved in shifts in our physiology – involved in patterns of expressive behaviour (vocalization, facial expression, and movement) – brief and last only a few seconds Mood: last for hours and even days – e.g., irritable, blue – general and unfocused, isn’t always clear what they are about mood disorder: can last for weeks, months, or years – e.g., depression, generalized anxiety – general and unclear what they’re about Identify the three components of emotions. 1. Involves shifts in our physiology such as heart rated changes, sweaty palms, and chills 2. Described as specific and brief subjective states arsing in response to a particular event 3. Emotions are shown to motivate observable actions that alight with goals or values o E.g., Anger motivates individuals to join a protest, sight a petition… Describe the functions of emotions. 1. Intrapersonal: Emotions helps individuals survive, focus attention, motivate actions, and guide decisions 2. Interpersonal: Emotions communicate information, regulate relationships, and promote social bonds 3. Socio-Cultural: Emotions reinforce cultural norms, foster group cohesion, and facilitate learning Describe the functional value of fear, shame, and anger but also be prepared to identify functional value of other emotions (such as awe and group identity). - Fear – Promotes survival by triggering threat responses - Shame – Maintains moral behaviour and social bonds - Anger – Motivates action to address injustice or goal frustration - Awe – Inspires exploration, humility, and self-transcendence - Group Identity – Fosters cooperation, solidarity, and collective action Summarize the support for the evolutionary perspective on emotions, including the following: a. Cross-cultural research on emotional expression ---Ekman and Friesen’s 6 universal facial expression studies. o Anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise o In the initial study à had to identify photo of actors expressing these emotions o Accuracy rates = 70-90% o Criticism à Participants exposure to Western media could have influenced their ability to recognize the emotions o Follow-Up study à no exposure to Western media or culture  o Participants matched facial expressions to emotion-specific stories o Accuracy (adults) 68-92% -- Accuracy (children) 81-98% b. Emotional expression in other animals 1. Similar expressions across species o Chimps show emotional behaviours like humans § Threat displays and whimpers – resembles human anger and sadness § Silent bared-teeth display – resembles human smiles during friendly interactions § They relaxed open-mouth display during play – human laughter 2. Tactile Communication § Social mammals soothe and embrace others, behaviour akin to human expression of love and compassion 3. Embarrassment and Appeasement § Human express embarrassment by shifting gaze, smiling self- consciously, lowering their head, touching their face, or exposing their neck c. Emotional expression among the blind---Matsumoto’s 2008 blind athlete study. 1. Emotional expression in the Blind o Studies of sighted and congenitally blind Olympic athletes show similar emotional expressions o After winning, both groups displayed pride: smiling, head tilting back, chest expansion, and raised arms o After losing, both lowered their heads and slumped their shoulders in shame o Blind athletes, having never seen emotional expressions, demonstrates that these behaviours are innate, not learned Understand how these theories relate to Darwin’s universality hypothesis. 1. Darwin argues that human emotions evolved from shared ancestor with other mammals - E.g., Similar emotional expressions are observed in primates (chimpanzees’ smiles, laughter, …) and other social mammals 2. Emotional Expression Among the Blind - Darwin proposed that emotional expressions are innate rather than culturally learned - E.g., Blind individuals including blind from birth, express emotions ( pride, and shame) similar to sighted individuals Define social functional theory - The broad idea that emotions coordinate social interactions in ways that enable people to meet social opportunities and challenges How can emotions help solve the commitment problem? 1. Signaling Commitment to others - Certain emotional expression, such as gratitude, serve as signals of our investment in others’ well-being o E.g., studies show that expressions gratitudes helps form and maintain deeper, committed friendships (Algoe et al. 2013)  2. Motivational Sacrificial Behaviour - Emotions can motivate actions that prioritize the need of others over our immediate self-interest, reinforcing trust and connection - E.g., Guilt à although painful, guilt motivates us to apologize, make amends, and show others that they are values o Anger à can drive us to defend others who have been wronged, even when it required personal sacrifice Describe what is oxytocin and its role in social commitment and pair bonding, including: - Hormone produced on the hypothalamus and released into the brain and bloodstream - Plays key role in fostering emotions that promote social commitment, caregiving, and pair bonding a. what happens to montane voles who are injected with oxytocin - they exhibit pair-bonding behaviour: o they stay close to a sexual partner, even when more desirable mates are nearby o demonstrates that oxytocin can override natural tendencies, fostering monogamy-like behaviours b. what happens when you administer humans with intranasal oxytocin - When humans inhale oxytocin through a nasal spray, they show increase prosocial tendencies, such as: o Greater generosity o Increased empathy, reflected in better understanding and sharing of others’ emotions o Enhanced attention to faces, facilitating social connections and trust o Helps couple solve conflict more constructively c. Does oxytocin always promote prosocial behaviour? When does it not? 1. Ingroups Bias: Oxytocin primarily fosters commitment and trust toward members of ones won group, BUT can enhance bias against outgroup 2. Context-Specific Effects: If group boundaries are rigid or intergroup tensions are high, oxytocin may reinforce group-based divisions rather than fostering universal cooperation Understand and be prepared to apply emotional mimicry - the conscious or deliberate copying of others’ emotional expressions – serves as a simple yet powerful way for humans to collaborate and connect with one another 1. Developmental Basis: Even 4-month-old infants mimic tongue protrusions and smiles from adults. As children grow, they imitate the gestures, postures, and emotional expressions of role models like teachers, parents, and public figures (Bernieri & Rosenthal, 1991). 2. Unconscious Mirroring:  Adults often mimic emotions automatically without realizing it—copying others’ smiles, tones of voice, postures, or furrowed brows. 3. Collaboration and Performance: Emotional mimicry enhances teamwork and collective performance. o E.g., Musicians in string quartets deliver higher-quality performances when they sway their bodies in unison (Chang et al., 2017). 4. Enhanced Cooperation: Mimicking emotions fosters greater cooperation both within groups and with individuals outside the group (Wiltermuth & Heath, 2009) Understand the role of touch in emotionality---Kraus et al 2010 study on NBA teammates. Role of Touch: Touch conveys emotions like trust, gratitude, and love, strengthening social bonds. Study Overview: Kraus et al. (2010) observed NBA teammates’ touches (e.g., high fives, fist bumps, hugs) during games. Findings: o Teams that touched more at the beginning of the season performed better later in the season. o Results controlled for factors like early game performance, player salaries, and preseason expectations. Impact of Touch: o Promotes cooperation and team cohesion. o Enhances group dynamics and collective performance. Describe the ways in which emotional expression varies across cultures, including: a. Focal emotions—which emotions are more focal in cultures of honor? - emotion common and intensely experienced in specific cultures. - Cultures of Honor: Anger is a focal emotion, triggered by insults or threats to family and honor. - Interdependent Cultures: Emotions like shame and embarrassment are focal, reflecting concern for others’ opinions (e.g., China has 113 words for shame/embarrassment). - Expressive behavior aligns with focal emotions, such as intense displays of shame in East Asian athletes after a loss. b. Ideal emotions (affect valuation theory) - Cultural ideals influence which emotions are valued most: - Western Cultures: Value excitement for independence and self-expression. - East Asian Cultures: Value calmness and contentment to promote harmony in relationships.  - Latino Cultures: Value simpatía (warm, affectionate social interactions) and experience more gratitude compared to East Asians. - These values are reflected in behavior, such as choice of music, recreational activities, or advertising styles c. Emotional regulation and suppression - Emotion regulation involves strategies to modify emotions to fit social contexts or improve well-being: 1. Reappraisal: Rethinking the causes of emotions. 2. Acceptance: Recognizing emotions as fleeting and tied to changing circumstances. 3. Suppression: Minimizing outward emotional displays. - Cultural Variations: o Interdependent cultures (e.g., East Asia) are more likely to suppress positive emotions and temper positive experiences with negative ones. o Personal enthusiasm and success are often downplayed in interdependent contexts to maintain social harmony. How can positive emotions influence reasoning--- Isen’s 1987 and 1993 study findings - Positive Emotions and Flexible Reasoning (Isen, 1987, 1993): Alice Isen demonstrated that positive emotions can enhance flexible and creative reasoning. Subtle mood boosts, like finding a coin or receiving candy, led participants to: o Generate Novel Associations: § Example: Given the word carpet, participants in a positive mood responded with creative words like fresh or texture, while those in a neutral state gave conventional responses like rug. o Think Inclusively: § People in positive moods categorized fringe items (e.g., cane or purse) as belonging to broader categories like clothing, unlike neutral participants who defined categories narrowly. - Social Consequences: Positive emotions help negotiators reach optimal agreements by encouraging flexible thinking that incorporates both sides' interests (Carnevale & Isen, 1986) Describe the “broaden and build hypothesis”----what were the main findings of the study that tested this hypothesis. - The idea that positive emotions broaden thoughts and actions, helping people build social resources – negative emotions narrow these intentions Study Findings:  1. Broadened Thought Patterns: o Participants induced to feel positive emotions (e.g., watching amusing films) generated more varied responses to situations compared to those feeling negative emotions or in a neutral state. 2. Global vs. Local Perception: o In visual tasks, participants feeling positive emotions: § Chose the global match (e.g., overall arrangement of three triangles) over the local match (e.g., specific details like four squares). § This indicates broader, more holistic thinking. 3. Social Implications: o Positive emotions promote stronger social ties by: § Encouraging individuals to see deeper similarities with romantic partners. § Making people perceive themselves as more similar to outgroup members (Fredrickson, 2001; Waugh & Fredrickson, 2006). Define affective forecasting and describe the biases and other factors that contribute to inaccurate affective forecasts (describe research examples where applicable) Affective Forecasting - Predicting future emotions, such as whether an event will result in happiness, anger, or sadness and for how long a. Immune neglect - The tendency for people to underestimate their capacity to be resilient in responding to difficult life events, which leads them to overestimate the extent to which life’s problems will reduce their personal well-being b. Focalism - Tendency to focus too much on central aspect of an event while neglecting the possible impact of peripheral considerations or extraneous events c. duration neglect - relative unimportance of the length of an emotional experience, whether pleasurable or unpleasant, in retrospective assessments of the overall experience Summarize the factors that have been found to contribute to happiness- and take note of any relevant studies.