Allah and Eternity: Mosques, Madrasas and Tombs PDF

# Allah and Eternity: Mosques, Madrasas and Tombs ## Introduction * James Dickie (Yaqub Zaki) * The concept of *din* (religion) for the Muslim embraces three elements: *îmān* ("belief"), *ibādāt* ("religious obligations") and *ihsan* ("right doing"). * These correspond to Western terms of dogma,...

# Allah and Eternity: Mosques, Madrasas and Tombs ## Introduction * James Dickie (Yaqub Zaki) * The concept of *din* (religion) for the Muslim embraces three elements: *îmān* ("belief"), *ibādāt* ("religious obligations") and *ihsan* ("right doing"). * These correspond to Western terms of dogma, ritual and ethics. * In Islam, belief in God, in His unity and His unicity, and His self-disclosure to a sequence of prophets culminating in the revelation of the Quran to Muhammad and the finality of the latter's prophethood, are fundamental. * The *shahadah* or Creed ("attestation of faith") comprises only two clauses. * "I believe that there is no god apart from the the god," and * "that Muhammad is the messenger of God." * Islam is the religion of unity in all levels; ontological, social and political. * The term *umma* describes social and political unity. * Socially, umma denotes the Muslim community, * Politically it denotes `Muhammad's nation`, a revolutionary concept whereby belief, rather than birth, became the criterion of nationality. * Islam's cosmogony posits a God-centered universe where only God Himself is real and everything else is contingent being. * Knowledge of God is only possible through the Names He ascribes to Himself in the Quran and His actions which manifest His Attributes. * The magical total of ninety-nine Attributes are derived from Ninety-Nine Names of God. ## The Mosque * **Masjid** - Mosque used for daily prayer by individuals or small groups, with a mihrab but no minbar (pulpit) * **Jami** - Congregational or Friday mosque used for the main weekly service, normally much larger than a masjid and provided with a minbar * **Idgah** - Place of prayer; illustrated in plate 5, a range of architectural variations is possible within these liturgical types. ### Mosque Architecture * **Early mosque architecture** - The earliest indicator of the direction of Mecca was the spear, which on a coin struck during the reign of the Umayyad caliph `'Abd al-Malik` (685-705) is shown standing upright within a niche, which had become normative as the liturgical indicator by this time. * **Ottoman mosques** - The Ottomans developed the monumental centralized mosque, covered by a dome and buttressed by semi-domes. The mosque of Sultan Ahmet in Istanbul, known as the Blue Mosque, was begun in 1609 and finished in 1617. Four minarets flank the sanctuary, and two more the courtyard to the right. * **North African and Spanish mosques** - North Africa and Spain have a vast rectangular hall with columns, as evident in the Great Mosque in Qairouan, Tunisia (built in the 9th century). * Its only striking features are the minaret and dome over the entrance and mihrab, marking the terminal point of the *qibla lun`, or axial aisle. * **Iranian mosques** - The Iranian mosque is cruciform with a domed "kiosk" at the *qibla*. * Each side has huge open porches, or *juin*, such as the mosque in Isfahan (above) with a sundial designed by the 17th century mathematician Shaykh Baha'i. * **Idgah** - The place of community prayer, the *idgah*, is a mosque reduced to its bare essentials: an open praying area with only a *qibla* wall and a mihrab. * The entire population of a city can assemble here for the two major festivals. ### Mosque Features * **Minaret** - The minaret is necessary for Islamic worship, from where the muezzin gives the call to prayer (right). * **Fountain** - A fountain for ablution is also necessary; the worshipper has to be in a state of ritual purity before he starts to prey. * This may mean taking a bath, but washing certain prescribed parts of the body is normally sufficient. * **Shoes** - Shoes are removed before entering the mosque. * The floors are carpeted because the liturgy requires prostration (bowing) and baring the feet obviates the possibility of ritual defilement taking place. * **Courtyard** - The courtyard afforded an opportunity for architectural display, as seen in the Jami" Masjid in Delhi where the courtyard is surrounded by finely sculptured arches. * There is an ablution tank in the middle. * **Fountains** - Fountains can also be works of art, such as the mosque at Istanbul where each tap is set in a finely worked niche. * Stone stools are provided so that the worshipper can isolate himself from the ritually impure floor. ## The Axis of Prayer * **Mihrab** - The chief feature of the mosque is the *mihrab,* a niche in the centre of the *qibla* wall to define the direction of Mecca. * The *mihrab* is surmounted by a round window to show its position externally and with a sanctuary lamp in front of it. * **Minbar** - The minbar, or pulpit, lies at the top of a flight of steps * The top step is reserved for the Prophet, the imam stands on the second step and sits on the top step. * **Dikka** - The dikka, or platform, is usually in line with the mihrab to hold muezzins chanting in unison the responses to the imam's prayers, thus transmitting the particular stage of the liturgy to those out of earshot. * At the Selimiyye Mosque at Edirne the dikka shelters an interior fountain. * **Kursi** - A *kursi* (lectern) for the Cantor or reciter of the Quran stands next to the dikka. * The *kursi* is large enough to hold the Quran. * **Masjid** - The *masjid* is distinguished from the *jämi*", or congregational mosque, by not having a minbar. * The *Masjid of the Serpents*, at Hama, in the Orontes Valley (above), exemplifies this. ## The Madrasa * **Madrasa** - The collegiate mosque, or *madrasa*, derives from an architectural plan resembling the Iranian mosque. * It is rectangular, with a *luân* on the center of the central courtyard. * Teaching takes place in the *īwāns*, and the students live in cells arranged along the walls. * **Khurasan** - The *madrasa* plan seems to originate from the houses of Khurasan. * The earliest *madrasas* may have been simple houses of the teachers, but as the need for educational institutions grew, so did the physical size of the madrasa. * The *Mustansiriyya* in Baghdad is a restored example, an archetypal *madrasa* without a pulpit or minaret. * Examples of older purpose-built *madrasas* include *Avicenna's madrasa* in Isfahan. The *Madrasah-i Shah* in Isfahan is one of the most sumptuous, with courtyards and cells devoted to student accommodation. * **Ottoman madrasas** - Ottoman madrasas, such as the *Büyük Karatay* and the *Ince Minare*, both in Konya, were small enough to allow the roofing of a small courtyard, rather than a lantern. ## The Monastic Mosque * **Khānaqah** - The term *khānaqah* refers to a retreat from the world, or monastic mosque. * In Islam, such retreats were present from the time of the Prophet. * Communities of dervishes were established by the 11th century. * They have no consistent pattern. * **Bektashis** - For the Bektashis, as for the Buddhists of Japan, landscape was part of the meditation technique. * The *Bektashīyya* and *Mawlawiyya* are two of the major monastic orders. * The Bektashī convent of *Hajji Bektash, the *Mawlawiyya* headquarters at Konya, and the *Mawlawiyya* khānaqah at Mount Muqattam in Cairo are excellent examples. * **Barqiyya** - The so-called *Barquqiyya*, outside Cairo, combines the forms of mosque, madrasa and monastery. * It is cruciform in plan, but substitutes hypostyle halls for *īwāns*, while the dervishes are housed in a three-storey block of cells. ## The Celebration of Death * **Funerals** - Funerals follow the pattern laid down by the Prophet. * A 13th-century miniature from Baghdad depicts the committal ceremony, from the wailing women to the gravediggers. * A modern photograph shows the preparations, with the bier covered with a green, embroidered pall, waiting for the funeral prayer. * A modern interpretation of the traditional Mughal tomb is the mausoleum for the poet-philosopher Iqbal, designed and completed in 1951. * **Burial Customs** - Burial customs are conditioned by beliefs concerning salvation and resurrection. * Bodies are placed in a recumbent position at right angles tot he *qibla*. * Coffins are optional, but a vault is essential, allowing the body to sit up and reply to the Angels of the Grave. * **Cemeteries** - Cemeteries are filled with trees (such as cypress), with a preference for evergreens. * The height to which a tree grew was believed to indicate the degree of glory a deceased person enjoyed in Paradise. * A *rāwda*, a funerary garden, is an eschatological reference, as seen in the *Khwānd Khātûn* complex in Kayseri. * In Turkish graveyards, crowded headstones and footstones create the impression of silent witnesses. ## The Mosque, a Visual Metaphor * **The Mosque** - The mosque is built around a singular horizontal axis, the *qibla,* which extends invisilbly down the middle of the floor and terminates in Mecca. * The *mihrab,* a niche in the *qibla* wall, is merely the liturgical axis made visible, and it takes the form of an arched niche framed by one pair of colonnettes. * This visual as well as liturgical climax of the mosque is usually the object of lavish ornamentation. * **The Minaret** - The development of the minaret derives from the need for a high point from which to broadcast the call to prayer. * It evolved from the corner towers of Christian churches, as seen in Damascus, though these similarities end there due to architectural and functional differences. * **The Dome** - Domes were initially small, covering the *qibla* for external definition and internal light, then later covering the mortuary chamber, then ultimately covering the entire sanctuary. * The dome can be interpreted as a cosmic symbol, representing the vault of heaven. * **Prayer** - Formal prayer involves a repeated sequence of standing, bowing, prostration and genuflection, representing progressive degrees of acknowledging God's overlordship. * This process is generally performed at four levels; daily, congregational, community and the pilgrimage to Mecca. * **The Masjid** - The *masjid* has only a mihrab to define the direction of Mecca. * In Turkey, the distinction between *masjid and jämi*′ is still recognized and is applied correctly when identifying a mosque. * The *jämi´* is the collective mosque, whose primary function is the Friday service. * **Ablution** - Ablution is a ritual purification which is generally carried out individually, though it is sometimes done in congregation. * It may be a total or partial cleansing, but it is normally a partial cleansing. * Ablution must be performed with running water, and the water must be clean. ## The Madrasa and Its Influence * **Khurasan** - The *madrasa* plan originates in Khurasan. * It combines pragmatism and beauty, with cells (or *hūjras*) and *īwāns* running around a courtyard. * The first *madrasahs* were simply the houses of teachers. * The *Nizamiyya* at Baghdad, established in 1067, is one of the most famous Islamic universities. * **Ottoman madrasas** - The Seljuqs of Rum built both simple and multiple *madrasas*. * A three-*īwān* version resulted in the *T-plan mosque*, which was standard for the early Ottoman period, before the dome-dominated mosque emerged in the 16th century. * The *Üç Şerefeli Mosque* in Edirne and *Istanbul* are examples of dome-dominated mosques. * **Iranian madrasas** - The Iranian *madrasa* evolved from a fusion of the local *kiosk mosque* with the *madrasa*, adding minarets and a dome. * The *madrasah-i Shah* at Isfahan is one of the most sumptuous of Iranian *madrasas*. * **Egyptian madrasas** - The *madrasa* plan was transposed from Syrian to Egyptian soil after Saladin defeated the Fatimids in 1171. * The *Kamiliyya Madrasa* is the first in Egypt to use the *īwān* principle. * *Al-Malik as-Salih* erected the first four-*-īwān* madrasas in Egypt and established a series of madrasas down to the *Ghūriyya*. * The modern Egyptian mosque results form a fusion of the *Mamlūk* style with Ottoman spatial insights. * The *Sultan Hasan Madrasa* is the apotheosis of the *madrasa* in Cairo. ## The Monastic Mosque and its Variants * **Khānaqah** - The *khānaqah* is the monastic mosque, for both eremitical and coenobitic monasticism. * The *khānaqah* of *Baybars al-Jashnakīr* in Cairo, completed in 1309 is an example that could easily be mistaken for a *madrasa*. * The *khānaqah* of *an-Nasir Faraj ibn Barquq* is unique because it imitates a *madrasa* yet is a *khānaqah*. * **Bektashis** - The *Bektashīyya* order was founded by *Balim Sultan* in the 16th century and requires that their establishments be located places with nice views. * The *Bektashiyya* khānaqah, in the precincts of al-Maghāwirī's cave on Mount Muqattam overlooking Cairo, and *Hajji Bektash* in Cappadocia are excellent examples. * **Mawlawiyya** - The *Mawlawiyya*, or *Mevlevis*, is an establishment order with a close relationship to the Ottoman state. * Their khānaqah in the *Hilmiyya* quarter of Cairo was established in 14th-century Cairo and the chief feature is a large ceremonial hall, the *samā*-khāna, for the performance of the characteristic whirling dance. * The *samā*-khāna* is circular and includes balconies for spectators. * **Iranian khānaqahs** - Little is known about Iranian *khānaqahs*. * *Pir-i Bakrān*, near Isfahan, *Bistam* and *Natanz* are three important sites. * The Timurid *khānaqah* of Khwaja Ahmad Yasawī, in Soviet Turkestan, dates from the 14th century and the *Ni'matullahiyya* order mother convent, in Mahan, has several buildings disposed around two courtyards. * **Indo-Pakistani khānaqahs** - The proselytization of the Indian subcontinent was undertaken by Sufi dervishes, including the _Qadiriyya, Suhrawardiyya, Naqshbandiyya, and Chishtiyya._ * These orders originated outside India, in places such as the Yemen and Iraq. ## The Tomb Mosque and its Variants * **Tomb mosque** - The mosque is properly a mosque, mausoleum or khānaqah, with an ancillary funerary function. * **Tomb mosque** - The *Masjid al-Qadam*, or Mosque of the Footprint, in Damascus is a memorial mosque that enshrines a stone with an impression of the Prophet's foot. * **Memorial mosque** - The *Khirqa-yi Şerif*, in Istanbul, was erected in 1851 to accommodate a mantle of the Prophet. * **Mortuary chapel** - The mortuary chapel, distinct from the mortuary chamber of a tomb mosque, is a small room within a cemetery where funeral prayers are held. * **Mausoleum** - The mausoleum is a structure intended to protect the grave and ensure the perpetuation of the deceased. * The mausoleum of *Humāyün*, outside Delhi, dating from 1555-65, is one of the finest funerary monuments in the world. * The four tombs—Humāyūn, Akbar, Jihangir and Shah Jihan—are the finest funerary monuments in history. * The *Taj Mahal*, the tomb of Shah Jihan, is a perfect example of a mausoleum, with a central mortuary chamber and surrounding chambers for members of the imperial family. * The tomb of *Qābūs* at Gorgan, near the Caspian, is a tomb tower and is the type of tomb a warrior would have desired. * **Funerary Garden** - A funerary garden is a common feature for Islamic mausoleums. * It is conceived within a formal garden scheme, as the focal point where the axes of the garden intersect. * They are modular, based on a square or rectangular area divided into quadrants by two axis forming a cross. * They are functional and recreational. * **Cemetery** - Trees planted in cemeteries are evergreens and the most common tree is the cypress. * In Turkey, it was believed that the height of a tree indicated the degree of glory a deceased person enjoyed in Paradise. * The **rawa'da**, or funerary garden, operates within a framework of eschatological reference. ## The Evolution of Islamic Architecture * **The Mihrab** - The *mihrab,* the defining element of Islamic architecture, evolved from the niche of the Coptic churches in Egypt when the Prophet's mosque at Medina was rebuilt in 707-709 AD. * **The Mosque** - The early mosque had no *mihrab,* only a block of stone indicating direction. * The earliest *mihrabs* were concave and had a practical purpose, serving as an acoustic device to amplify the imam's voice. ## The Importance of the Madrasa * **The Madrasa** - The *madrasa*, an Islamic university, is more than just a tool for promoting Sunni orthodoxy. * It is an important institution for transmitting knowledge and learning. * **The Nizamiyya** - The *Nizamiyya* of Baghdad is a famous example. * It was established in 1067. * It taught Shafi'i jurisprudence and Ash'ari theology. * The *Nizamiyya* is the greatest university in Islam. * It was a single-rite (Shafi'i) *madrasa,* with some six thousand students. ## The Influence of the Khānaqah * **The Khānaqah** - The *khānaqah,* or monastic mosque, is considered the heart of Muslim monasticism. * The first *khānaqah* in Egypt was founded in 1173-4 by Saladin. * The Bektashīyya is one of many orders, and the founders are known as *quṭb*. ## The Evolution of the Tomb * **The Tomb** - The origins of the *türbe,* or tomb, can be traced to the `qibla` as a lateral position, then to covering the mortuary chamber with a dome. * **The Tomb** - The *türbe* is a cosmic symbol, with the square plinth representing the material universe, the dome standing for eternality, and the octagon symbolizing the transition from the one to the other. * The *Gunbad-i Qābūs*, in Iran, is an example of a tomb specifically designed to honor a warrior. * **The Funerary Garden** - The funerary garden in Islam is the product of both climatic and cosmological factors. * It is modular, based on a square or rectangular area divided into quadrants by two axes forming a cross. ## The Visual Metaphor of the Mosque * **The Mosque as a Visual Metaphor** - The mosque is a visual metaphor for a complex concept; that the *umma* encompasses the dead as much as the living. * The *Masjid al-Qadam* in Damascus is an example of a memorial mosque, a place where an object is enshrined. * The *Khirqa-yi Şerif* in Istanbul, is an example of a mosque designed to house a special relic. * **The Funerary Garden as a Visual Metaphor** - The funerary garden is a perfect representation of Islamic art. * It is the visual expression of the Paradisal Garden. * The four mausoleums—Humāyūn, Akbar, Jihangir and Shah Jihan—are the finest examples. * **The Grave** - In Islam, the grave is a sacred location and a place of psychic contact with the deceased. * The term *shahid* (martyr) implies a supernatural connection to the body, which allows for a relaxed burial process. * The term *awliya* (saint) also implies a connection to the physical body in death. * The tomb of a saint is a place where suppliants go for intercession. * **The *Türbe* ** - The *türbe,* or tomb, is a common feature in Islamic architecture. * It is characterized by a gable section top and it tapers towards the foot. * The *türbe* is highly decorative and often adorned with rich fabrics and other costly materials. * **The *Tābūt* ** - The *tābūt,* or catafalque, is a wooden replica of the Islamic coffin designed for the tomb of a saint. * It is often covered with rich materials. * The catafalque is a common feature of Mughal tombs. * **Cemeteries** - Cemeteries are places of worship and are adorned with evergreens. * They are populated with a visual metaphor for the silent witnesses to life and death; the tombstones create a multitude of sentinels. * There are three categories of Islamic cemeteries, those commemorating saints, those honoring heroes, and those celebrating the deceased of a particular profession. * The *Karaca Ahmet Mazarlık*, on the continent of Asia, is a significant cemetery in Turkey. * **The Burial Process** - Burial customs are conditioned by beliefs concerning salvation and resurrection. * The body is placed in a recumbent position at right angles to the *qibla*. * A coffin is optional, but a vault is essential, allowing the body to sit up and reply to the Angels of the Grave (Munkir and Nakir). ## The Evolution of the Tomb Mosque * **Tombs of Saints and Martyrs** - Religious and military figures are frequently buried in mosques. * In such cases, the tomb becomes an integral part of the architectural design, reflecting the status and importance of the deceased. * The *Al-Juyūshī Mosque*, on the cliff-edge of Mount Muqattam overlooking Cairo, dates from 1085 and is an example of a mosque built around a preexisting tomb. ## The Influence of Islamic Architecture * **The *Khānaqah* and *Madrasa** - *Khānaqahs* and *madrasas,* often exhibit similar architectural features, but their purposes differ. * The *Khānaqah* is a monastic retreat, where dervishes live and practice Sufi mysticism. * The *Madrasa* is a place of learning where students study religious sciences and philological disciplines. * **The Mosque** - The mosque is a building designed around the direction of prayer (the *qibla*), and its interior features reflect this purpose. * The *mihrab*, a niche in the *qibla* wall, is a key element of mosque architecture, as is the *minbar,* a pulpit used for delivering sermons. * Tombs, *khānaqahs* and *madrasas* often contain features that express their unique purposes, such as a ceremonial hall (a *samā'-khāna* which is used for the *Sema* dance of the *Mawlawiyya* order). ## The Importance of the Mosque * **The Mosque** - The mosque is a place of worship, a place of learning, and a place of community. * It plays a vital role in Islamic society, providing a space for daily prayer, communal gatherings, and religious education. * It is a tangible expression of Islamic beliefs, as seen in its architectural features and its design.