chapter 1-3.pdf

CHEAPTER 1 participation in the administration of government. These viewpoints are, of course, much more satisfactorily...

CHEAPTER 1 participation in the administration of government. These viewpoints are, of course, much more satisfactorily accepted by those in administrative practices than when The Meaning of Public Administration they are theoretically discussed as concepts of public administration. People form organizations to accomplish goals which they cannot achieve individually. One such organization This chapter's objective is, therefore, to discuss the is the government. following subjects: The people's involvement with government becomes in- 1. What is Public Administration? escapable since its establishment. It has become an essential part of both their individual and group efforts. Inevitably, it has assumed not only coordination but also 2. What is Management? the control function of their society. 3. Is Public Administration an Art or a Science? With such developments, public administration has become the essential tool of government in the performance of achieving its functions. It is there 4. Differences Between Public Administration and wherever the government is needed. Thus, it has become Private Administration inextricably interwoven not only into the administrative structure of government but also into the fabric of human life. What is Public Administration? Public administration is never static. It is a dynamic organ of government which keeps on responding to the There have been discussions not only on what public requirements of the times. It has progressed rapidly over administration is but also on its nature, scope, and the past decades. Despite political setbacks, it has thrusts. Public administration is commonly defined as achieved an impressive record of growth. "government in action." In this sense, says Raul P. de Guzman, "wherever there is govern- ment there is public administration [it] refers to cooperative human action to achieve the purposes of govern- ment." Simply stated it It is expected, therefore, that the continuity of is a broad definition based on cursory visual perceptions government, if not the state itself, rests upon its ability to of it. However, public administration is a much more discharge effectively its functions, notwithstanding the complex entity. It performs a variety of distinct but passage of time and events, or even the frequent equally important related functions. changes in the attitudes of people. Government Public administration calls for action, and as defined by achieves continuity by conforming with the customs, Leonard D. White, is "concerned with action in particular traditions, concrete and temperament of the people. As such, it serves not Dwight Waldo, "Development in Public Administration," only as the "government's central instrument for dealing The Annals of the American Academy of Political and with general social problems," but also as an effective Social Sciences, No. 404 (Novem ber, 1972), p. 222. measure for strengthening society itself. 2 Raul P. de Guzman (ed.), Patterns in Decisionmaking: Politics and public administration are interrelated and Case Studies in Philippine Public Administration (Manila: inter- woven; in fact, knotted to each other. University of the Philippines Graduate School of Public Administration, 1963), p. ix. Public administration is a productive partner of politics in bringing the affairs of government to the people. It is situations, but in accordance with long-range also an effective instrument of the government's serving objectives." In effect, he clarifies the concept of the citizens as well as the vehicle for spurring their "government in action."  relations between numerous special social interests, with all of which no man can be intimately acquainted. What then should be the scope of public administration? Probably no very highly specialized class can be strong in Should it be principally limited to the administration of this intellectual quality be- cause of the intellectual the government's bureaucracy? Or should its objectives isolation incident to specialization; and yet be the total administration of the administrative administration or generalization is not only the faculty machinery of government? For Robert Presthus: upon which social stability rests, but is, possibly, the highest faculty of the human mind.8 Public administration is concerned with the institutional framework of government, its socio-economic and The capacity of government to perform its functions, political milieu, and the behavior of the individuals who however, rests with its public administration being man the bureaucratic machine.4 attuned to the realities of the times. A further look at public administration shows that it On the other hand, the capacity of public administration should also concern with the formulation of public to perform its functions for the people can be enhanced policies and the implementation of government if there is public awareness of why and how these programs. functions are being performed. Also, such functions will be achieved only if govern- ment personnel respond to their respective responsibilities with the kind of Moreover, Presthus points out that public administration dedication and loyalty required by the nature of public is "that aspect of administration occuring under the administration as public service. formal aegies of government at every level."5 If it is only an aspect of administra- tion then what is administration? By the nature of its functions, the government should be responsive to the needs of both the nation as a whole and the people as individuals. It should take, if Barry M. Richman and Melvyn Copen define necessary, a gradual and pragmatic manner of action in administration as follows: responding to such needs. Administration is basically an organizational process Public administration in carrying out public policies concerned with the implementation of objectives and brings plans and internal operating efficiency. It often connotes bureaucratic structure and behavior, relatively routine decision-making and maintenance of the internal status the different administrative structures of government quo.6 into a single Moreover, administration is not limited to large organ of administration. In doing so, it means its organizations. As it is, White considers it as applicable to adherence to such all kinds of group effort. public policies and accepted management principles Administration is a process common to all group effort, and practices public or private, civil or military, large scale or small scale. It is a process at work in a department store, a bank, a university or high school, a railroad, a hotel, or a city government. 7 prevailing at that time. In this view, Brooks Adams attaches administration to At this point, it is necessary that government be coordination. He says: distinguished from administration and administrative services. Says Primo L. Tongko: Administration is the capacity of coordinating many and often conflicting, social energies in a single organism, so The term "government" embraces the totality of all adroitly that they shall operate as a unity. This institutions through which the state carries out its will. presupposes the power of recognizing a series of "Administration" refers to the aggregate of those persons in whose hands the reins of the government are placed for the time being while "administrative services" refers to the aggregate of governmental agencies that are Public administration: necessary to carry on government routine work. These agencies perform the ordinary, scientific, and technical aspects of the machinery of the government that are 1. is cooperative group efforts in a public setting; necessary to carry on its day- to-day functions.9 2. covers all three branches executive, legislative, and Considering the functions of government and the judicial and their interrelationships; adminis- trative organizations formed to attain them, the task of public administration is a very complicated one as compared to that of business administration. Public 3. has an important role in the formulation of public administration requires a lot of coordination, problem- policy and is thus a part of the political process; solving and decision-making activity. 4. is different in significant ways from private administra- A majority of politicians have proved themselves to be tion." responsible and dedicated public officials who can be relied upon to do their share in bringing about a strong and stable government whose programs are acceptable Finally, public administration is a dynamic art which is to the people. In some instances, however, they interfere gradually being developed as a science. This matter will with public administrators in many aspects of public administration. This causes conflicts in public be discuss- ed more in detail later on in this chapter. administration, such as on one hand, the appropriate role of politicians in it and, on the other, the involvement of public administrators in politics. This issue is being What is Management? debated within and outside the government circle for decades without any light of possible resolution. One way of looking at management is through people who compose the organization. In this manner, it may be Strange as it may seem, public administration calls for considered as the people responsible for the actions in not only the active participation of the politicians but the organization. Management is the planning, deciding, also of all sectors of society if it is to succeed in or exercising of control and supervision on some overcoming the many administrative and socio- functions of the organization. economic problems of the nation. The total involvement of all sectors of society in the life of the nation is an imperative requirement for national survival, as well as Ralph Currier Davis and Alan C. Filley look at for the attainment of national greatness. management at a different angle. They say, it is "the function of executive In this situation, therefore, it is certainly difficult to define public administration in one sentence or one- leadership. 12 Meanwhile, looking at management in a paragraph definition. Dwight Waldo considers the effect wider perspective, Peter F. Drucker says: of such definition in this way: this way: Management, which is the organ of society specifically The immediate effect of all one-sentence or one- charged with making resources productive, that is, with paragraph definition of public administration is mental the responsibility for organized economic advance paralysis rather than enlightenment and stimulation. This is because a serious definition of the term... inevitably contains several abstract words or phrases. In Harold Koontz and Cyril O'Donnell have, suggested that short, compass these abstract words and phrases can "thefield of management be defined in the light of the be explained only by other abstract words and phrases, able and discerning manager's frame of reference, and in the process the reality and importance of "it" because theoretical science unrelated to the practical become fogged and lost. 10 art it is designed to serve is unlikely to be productive."14 They say further: Other social scientists share the view of Waldo. They presented in the form of a brief summary the constitution of the definition in this manner: In defining the field of management, care must be taken A science of administration would be a body of formal to distinguish between tools and content. Thus, statements describing invariant relationships between mathematics, opera- tions research, accounting, measurable objects, units, or elements. Unquestionably, economic theory, sociometry, and psy- chometrics, to administrative research has produced definite precepts mention a few, are tools of its content. This is not to say and hypotheses that are applicable to concrete that these fields are unimportant to the study and situations. But what administrators visualize as practice of management, as important contributions particularly valuable goes beyond that. They are have been made from them. Nor does it mean that they interested in the techniques of systematizing the may not further push back the frontiers of knowledge of process of securing and sifting relevant information so management. But they should not be con- fused with the that the factors involved in arriving at a policy decision basic content of the management field. 16 can be stated and the consequences of alternatives can be analyzed and balanced, 21 The term manager refers to either a person or position. As a person, it refers to "someone who occupies a As early as the 1920s, F. W. Willoughby admitted that position or someone who performs a job."16 As a there are certain fundamental principles in public position, it refers to "the manager's organizational administration that are of general application analogous superiority in the hierarchy of authority."17 to those characterizing any sciences, 22 Is Public Administration an Art or a Science? In the 1940s, Herbert A. Simon, Donald W. Smithburg and Victor A. Thompson made a new approach to public adminis- tration as a science. They considered it as a Art, as defined by Perfecto S. Sison, is "proficiency in the science of human interaction that is susceptible to practical application of knowledge acquired through objective investigation and analysis without reference to study, experience, or observation."18 It is also the use of value judgment. 23 However, Robert talent for creative work. A. Dahl is skeptical about the approach. 24 Several social scientists support the view that public Presthus views public administration "as the art and adminis- tration is an art. White says: science of designing and carrying out public policy." 25 The art of administration is the direction, coordination, Majority of the social scientists view that public adminis- and control of many persons to achieve some purpose or tration is not yet a science, but to some extent, it is objective. It is a dynamic art, taking the human and scientific. In the process of making decisions, for physical resources available in a system of instance, public administration administration and bending them to the achievement of some required goal. It is the central, over-all disposition of forces, bringing into focus and consistency of action elements often widely dispersed. It is an art that uses scientific techniques. As Arsenio P. Talingdan says: pervades all levels of organization, binding together the many professions, crafts, and specialists whose contributions although equally necessary are not those The question as to whether public administration is a of management, 19 science or not is as open when it was first raised. However it may, in the future become more and more scientific. One might even say that further scientific Other social scientists consider public administration as truths on human behavior and interaction will be a science. establish- ed. In many other fields, scientists will provide facts for the public administrator's use. But the public administrator will always be an artisan, making value judgments on the basis of these scientific truths, even "A science," says Sison, "is the systematic accumulation though he may also be required to be a 26 scientist.2 of facts, their analysis and interpretation, and their use to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion." 20 While public administration possesses conformities analogous to the developed sciences, it is more of an art According to Avery Leiserson and Fritz Morstein Marx: until its principles were empirically tested and verified to be of universal application. It is more responsible for the attainment of organizational objectives through execution of work done by the application of human Unlimited in decision-making process resources. It is, indeed, the art of working with people. Maintenance of internal status quo : Dynamic Public Administration vs. Private or Business entrepreneurship Administration Actuations subject to public criticism: Not normally "Although it varies in forms and objects, and although the subjected to public criticism administration of public and private affairs differs at many points," says White, "there is similarity, if not identity, in process wherever observed. " 27 Government corporations restrict- : No such restrictions ed by requirements of fiscal accountability foreign to corporate device. Speaking in the same vein, two American authors conclude: Figure 1. Differences Between Public Administration and Private Administration Any definition of public administration must deal with how it is similar to, or different from, private administration. The similarities are great, for The official actions of public administrators are based on administration as a process is by no means limited to the public trust carrying legal accountability. Section 1 of private sector. 28 Article XI of the 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines provides that: The differences between public administration and private administration are summarized in Figure 1. As Public office is a public trust. Public officers and thus shown, public administration is a broad field of employees must at all times be accountable to the administration, while private administration is a limited people, serve them with utmost responsibility, integrity, one. loyalty, and efficiency; act with patriotism and justice, and lead modest lives. Say Nigro and Nigro: Any government office is a trust for it is created for the sole purpose of effecting the ends for which it has been Government is different also in that no private company established, which is the common good and not for the can 29 equal it in size and diversity of activities. profit, honor, or private interest of any one man, family, or class of men. The contrary is true to private administra- tion. The two American authors added: "Even more important is the great scope of government activities, affecting the entire economic and social structure of the country."30 Service to the people is not, however, limited to those in the government service. While everyone is entitled to serve his people in the best way he can, those in the PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION PRIVATE ADMINISTRATION public service are given greater opportunity to do so. Broad field of administration : Limited field of Former Senate President Gil J. Puyat wrote on August 30, administration 1979 the following message in his notes: Official actions are based on public: trust carrying legal To be given the opportunity to serve the people is indeed accountability Not necessarily based on public trust; a priceless gift that a country can give a citizen. For a limited legal accountability citizen who is given this opportunity and who would serve less than his very best in dedication and performance, indeed has committed or is committing an act of apostasy. Relatively routine decision-making procedure Summary A government survives when it provides good public administration. Public administration is good when the people find in the government the full expression of People form organizations to accomplish goals which popular will. they could not achieve as individuals. One such organization is the government. Service to the people is the basic foundation of government, of which public administration is an Public administration has been defined in various ways. essential tool. The government must not only make But no condensed definition can encompass all the known its actuations to meet the people’s essential characteristics of public administration. It can only be needs and desires but it must also make the people presented in the form of a brief summary. understand its ways. This can only be possible if lines of communication are kept open between the government and the various sectors of society. Similarly, management is used in different ways. As such, a great deal of confusion has arisen. But it should be defined in accordance with the manager's frame of The effort is a continuing process which must never lag. reference. No one at the helm of government can afford to dispense with this requirement if he wants it to be responsive to the needs of the times.2 It seems to be the consensus of social scientists that public administration is more of an art, the art of working with people. Although public administration and private The machinery of government must, at all times, be administration differ in many points, there is a similarity, attuned to implement the government’s programs for the if not identity, in process wherever observed. welfare of the people, and be fully understood by the people in this effort. The people, as a result, will support and cooperate in attaining the objectives of the different programs being undertaken by the government. Thus, the CHAPTER 2 people are expected to give their personal loyalty, faith and confidence in the government which they need to succeed. The Role of Public Administration in Modern Society The government should exert considerable effort in In this era of frenzied efforts toward purposeful nation- reaching out to the people. This can be attained by building, the prime objective of emerging or developing disseminating information about the government and, at countries as well as the revitalizing old states is to adapt the same time, determining the people’s needs, to existing circumstances and influ- ences. Their sentiments, and attitudes toward the government. common problem is to weave their new-found form of Unfortunately, however, the government often becomes organization or administrative structure into a strong so thoroughly enmeshed in activity for its own sake that nationhood. it often loses sight of its real goals. The common desire, therefore, is for a more satisfying The government calls on public administration for the structure for a revitalized national existence. Manifestly, utilization of this important aspect of its work. Hence the efforts are being extended toward increasing the range of role of public administration in society, since the dawn of functions for which public administration must be organized government, revolves around the concept of responsible. Many countries tend to enlarge public service. Because of this, there is a need to explore responsibility to plan and carry out activities aimed to the nature of its commitment in contemporary society, develop their public administration that transcends the particularly the Philippine society, which is at a stage limits of self-interest to realize the fuller significance of where the pace of its social and economic development public is so rapid that in the formulation of its national policies it should be synchronized with world events. In this chapter, the following subjects will be discussed: Service within the context of real national aspirations. This augurs well for the achievement of national goals and objectives for development. Unless an effective 1. The New Role of Public Administration system of public administration exists in the government, the national aspiration will not thrive.  2. Executive Leadership’s Role of Public Says professor of public administration Arsenio P. Administration Talingdan: The ends of public administration are the ultimate 3. Public Administration’s Role in Designing Policy objectives of the State itself. Public administration expands with the development of public interests. As the administrative system grows and becomes more complex, the role of public administration expands. The The New Role of Public Administration public service is one of the principal pivots where people try to attain the good life. Since the 1940’s, the government has increasingly involved itself in national development, particularly in its These are not empty words. History has confirmed this economic and social spheres as it expands from its statement. It is essential, therefore, that public traditional functions of safeguarding the country’s administrators learn from their practical experiences in national security and providing essential public facilities the past. In here, there is truth in the saying: “What we and services. Consequently it expands not only its sow today will sprout tomorrow.” machinery but also the main thrust of public adminis- tration from the attainment of economy and efficiency in the public service to that of serving as change agent in the task of nation-building. The 1987 Constitution of the Philippines, in its concept of national economy and patrimony provides in Section 19 of Article XII that: In its new role as change agent, it seems to have significantly contributed to the shaping of both the aspirations and expec- tations of the people in its efforts The State shall regulate or prohibit private monopolies to improve their quality of life. However, in many when the public interests so requires. No combinations instances, the increased resources of the government in restraint of trade or unfair competition shall be are not proportioned to the increasing citizens’ demands allowed. for government service. This state of government affairs, therefore, ushered in a dilemma for public administrators in their efforts to narrow down or bridge Carrying out such policy of the State is the responsibility the gap between the fast- changing role of public of public administration. Thus empowered by the laws of administration and its almost static the land, public admini- stration regulates the acquisition, ownership, use, enjoyment and dispo- sition of private property, and to diffuse equitably both the Administrative ethos and structure. Richard A. Johnson, ownership and the profits of property. So, private and Fremont E. Kast and James E. Rosenzweig express the individual activities of the people are controlled to make common dilemma of the administrators as follows: them converge harmoniusly in the devel- opment of a national life which may be considered for the common good of the people. The organization takes many of its values from the broader socio-cultural environment. A basic premise is that the organization as a sub-system of society must As Robert Presthus says: accomplish certain goals which are determined by the broader system. The organization performs a function for the society and if it is to be successful in receiving Public administration, in its most basic sense, involves inputs, it must conform to social requirements. the coordination and mobilization of individual and group efforts with a view toward the implementation of public policy. An editorial of a Philippine daily newspaper explains the situation in this manner: Executive Leadership’s Role of Public Administration It is almost inconceivable that anybody or any group that is a product of that particular culture can rise to a position of power and oppose the values of the society. For in that case it is no less than a foreign body inserted Theoretically, a public administrator is not expected to in the organism. 4 have any part in policy decisions. Since he belongs to the civil service system, he is expected not to influence or intervene in the process of making the original decision. He is not expected to make the subsequent decision to carry it out either. But because of his technical 1. Functions peculiar to the state: knowledge, practical experience, and available resources at his command, politicians have to call upon a. Maintenance of order him in the enactment of appropriate legislation. In fact, he has to fill the gap in solving the administrative problems of policy-implementation by involving himself b. Attainment of justice in its policy-formulation. c. Protection of a system of property rights A simple truth, which is essential for the general process of policy formulation, should be understood and accepted. The politicians need information, which only d. Formation of administrative and foreign policies the vast and practical experience of public administrators can adequately supply. As it is, public administrators in carrying on the routine operations of 2. Functions for which the state is well-adapted: the business of government become administrative experts. They are called upon to furnish much of the advice upon which public policy is shaped, thereby influencing its final form and substance. a. Conservation of natural resources In another situation, the role of public administration is b. Control of monopoly not only to implement the policy but to give meaning to it by affect- ing economic and social behavior of which results could be achieved by its own operations. While those engaged in public administration do not in c. The maintenance of public services such as themselves establish the basic policies they execute, parks, play. Grounds, schools, and museums they give effect to such policy. This policy defines the means and ends of government action. 10 d. Preservation of health As Presthus points out: 4. Functions for which the state is ill-adapted: The size and complexity of governmental institutions in all but the most limited levels of public activity mitigate against purity in policy-formulating and policy- implementing roles. 11 These will vary with the conditions, but in general they are functions which do not serve the need of the entire community such as religion and literary and artistic production and eval uation. In fact, with society’s increased demands for the government’s services and subsidies, public administration expanded its administrative machinery to satisfy them. 5. Functions which the state is incapable of performing: As society progresses, it creates new needs and each one of them provides the government not only additional a. Control of people’s opinions source of ower but also more functions. Hence, it assures the permanency of public administration for it compelled the government to take in continuing b. Regulation of morality. responsibilities which, of course, can be fulfilled only through continuity of its operations. 12 Clearly, public administration has become inextricably The multi-function of government can best be inter- woven into every aspect of human life. Presthus understood by studying the following classifications puts it in this way: suggested by Robert MacIver and Charles Page: 13 The effect of such growth upon bureaucracy’s role is However, this continuity in a political culture is not immediate and unprecedented, mainly because of the reflected only in societies upholding democratic integral role it necessarily assumes in designing and institutions, but are also true in other systems classified carrying cut new and expanding programs. In a very real under what many call “democratic” form. sense, the roles of both government and the bureaucracy became so complex, technical, and pervasive that it was virtually impossible to maintain the kind of democratic But, of what use is a policy? As defined by Daniel Lerner control and the nice domy between policy and and Harold D. Lasswell: administration posited in an earlier and simpler era. 14 Policy is a projected program of goal values and It is frequently stated nowadays, therefore, that the role practices: of public administration needs review and reshaping. It should not only be flexible, realistic, and pragmatic, but by its very nature it should continuously evolve and adapt itself to current develop- ments if circumstances Policy process is the formulation, and application of so require. identifications, demands, and expectations concerning the future interpersonal relations to self. 17 In fact, Presthus observes the emerging role of public administration as follows: Since a policy is an attempt to establish a general rule, in giving it effect the administration may carry it into broader diversity of concrete situations as they perceive it. Even though major policy matters tend to originate elsewhere, bureaucracy sometimes plays a critical role in initiating policy, mainly because of its technical knowledge. Bureaucracy’s close liaisons with major In giving specific applications to the policy, public interest groups also enable it to play a role in administration can take into account the numerous recommending and carrying out public policies. Much of variables of different conditions. Because of this this influence arises because of bureaucracy’s flexibility, it can obtain compliance in varying situations operational role in carrying out such policy: if changes without either jeopardizing the consistency of general are required in ongoing programs, they are among the rule or making the general rule a crushing force first to know. 15 incapable of appropriate differentialities. Despite the size and scope of bureaucratic influence and Public administration presents itself as a process of the sophisticated technology at bureaucracy’s fitting. As a means of giving policy conciseness, command, its policy- making function is limited. As expressing in a highly diversified society. For this purpose pointed out by Presthus himself: it needs direction. It aims at coherence without being a helpless motion of precedent and operating convenience. It must keep itself open to the need for innovation and constant improvement. 18...it is often inaccurate to conceive of policy-making as a highly rational process, typically characterized by foresight and a nice consideration of most alternatives. Instead, much of the higher official’s time is spent Public Administration’s Role in Designing Policy shifting from one contingency to another. He does not usually control his agenda in the way required for system- atic planning and control. More often, he is Along with its role in legislative leadership, the concerned with post hoc reconciliations of unexpected bureaucracy of public administration plays the major events, 16 role in a given policy issue when a vacuum exists in the area. 19 Of course, continuity in policy-making is essential for effect ive public administration. Though essential, As Peter B. Natchez and Irvia Bupp say: however, continuity in political decision does not always assure the existence of democratic institutions. Priorities are established by aggressive entrepreneurs (appointed officials) at the operating levels of National-level politics is an extension of local-level government... because energetic division directors politics The latter is the microcosm of the former. successfully build political support to withstand continuous attacks upon a program’s resource base by In the process of nation-building, some nations adopted competing claims, 20 the authoritarian form of government of the countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Editorial writer and columnist Apolonio Batalla points Policy-making is “the prerogative of the political or out that: elected actors in government.”21 As pointed out by Avery Leicerson and Fritz Morstein Marx: Some form of authoritarianism exists in all the members of the group, and if we look a bit beyond the bloc we will The primary organ or policy sanction is the legislature. In see that it is only Japan that does not have an the main, it lays down policy in general terms. For authoritarian government. purposes of effective government such general policy is usually done by administrative policy formulation as a means of giving more precise expression to statutory To be sure, a large measure of democracy is observed in directions addressed to the executive branch, 22 the ASEAN countries. But in Indonesia, the military are everywhere, even in that office of the government that oversees the work of the press. And in Malaysia and The public administrator, particularly the city Singapore, the governments reserve for themselves that administrator, has a dual responsibility. James M. power of controlling the political situation through 27 Banovetz and his colleagues explain it in this manner: internal security acts. He is responsible, on one hand, for the provision of Columnist Batalla adds: effective organizational leadership: his is the task of running a “taut ship” in directing the programs and workers under his supervision. He is responsible, on the If it is true that authoritarianism breeds some degree of other hand, to the public which he serves: as a political instability, the authoritarianism in ASEAN has government employee, he is required to act in a manner not become a problem in that respect. which meets common expectations regarding responsive and responsible government. 23 On the other hand, in the years of the authoritarian regimes ASEAN has been cited for its fairly rapid They add: economic growth and political stability. This responsibility to the public involves two... of all the countries in ASEAN the Philippines has had components: imbuing the organization with the spirit of the most extensive experience in republicanism and service in the public interest and embodying in all that, therefore, it is not typically ASEAN. Hence, it is actions an interpretation of the public will. Neither, of capable of shucking off an authoritarian form of course, is it an easy task. 24 government for all time. The emerging role of the public administrator, due to the It depends on the people. By and large the population ever-changing conditions and rising expectations of the values the form of government outlined in the citizenry, is becoming more difficult. His problems Constitution but it has also the propensity for electing concerning not only the physical features of the place, corrupt officials, 28 but also the social and psychological conditions of its inhabitants as well, are “frustratingly complex, Regardless of the form of government, public administration is an essential part of it. It is through Divisive and challenging.”25 As David M. Welborn points public administration that the people transact their out: business with the government. Thus, the state of public administration in the ASEAN Region, if not in the Philippines in general, should be the subject of much Even so, these expectations have generally been defined deliberation. The character, nature, and scope of public imprecisely, meaning that the contours of the manager’s administration are constantly changing. On this, Dell role have traditionally become ambiguous, 26 Gillette Hitchner and William Henry Harbold point out that: The extent, organization, and procedures of public administration itself are closely influenced by the nature of the objectives being pursued and the social 1. How do the government cope with the conditions prevailing. Since these are not constant, public service requirements of the neither are the forms of administration. 29 predominantly countryside popu- lation? 2. How can the educational system and the government bridge the gap between In designing legislation for the country the role of public their efforts for human resources administration depends primarily on the nature of the development and the citizens’ demands objectives. Being pursued and the social conditions on their public administration prevailing at that time. In fact, it could be pointed out structures? that: 3. How can the government sustain its efforts of nation- The range of governmental activities and their importance to the community is not static, but varies Building without building its indigenous government with the aspirations of men and the conditions within resources, of which public administration is a vital part? which they live. 30 The answers to the questions will determine the future direct- ions and scope of the role of public administration in the society for which it was designed to Speaking of responsibility, Hitchner and Harbold state serve. that: Summary Responsibility is a rather ambiguous word and, consequently, methods which have been used and advocated to ensure the respon- sibility of public The prime objective of emerging or developing countries, officials have been various and rarely completely as well as of the revitalizing old states, is to reinforce satisfactory. When we say that a person is responsible themselves so as to be adaptable to existing we may mean that he is trustworthy or that he is circumstances and influences. To attain this situation, technically competent. We may also mean that he is an effective system of public administration is answerable to someone else. All these senses of the imperative. term are important in securing responsible government, although it is evident that conflicts may develop between The survival of government depends primarily on its them — the conscience or technical knowledge of an public ad- ministration, an essential tool of government. official may compel him to reject the instructions of Its role in society, regard- less of time, revolves around those to whom between these diverse tech- niques the concept of public service. remains uncertain, of course, but through continuing pragmatic adjustments they have, in most instances, been kept in reasonable balance, 31 In its new role as change agent, public administration significantly contributes in shaping both the aspirations and expectations of the people in its efforts to improve Twenty-five years ago, some American political their quality of life. scientists stress that public administration is a “professional bureaucracy.”3” For them, bureaucracy is Carrying out the policy of the state is the responsibility of “often used derogatorily, but properly means only a public administration. Hence, the ends of public large- scale organization of appointed officials, administration systematically interrelated in the realization of complex Are the ultimate objectives of the state itself. Moreover, purposes. “33 Against such background of historical public administration has become inextricably in- development of public terwoven into every aspect of human life. As such, its emerging role is becoming more difficult. Its character, structure, nature and scope are constantly changing. Administration, a set of questions on the role of public Finally, the role of public administration in designing the country’s policies depends primarily on the nature of the objec- tives being pursued and the social conditions Administration in modern society will emerge in the prevailing at the moment. minds of both The politicians and public administrators: CHAPTER 3 Cracy: The Nature of Bureaucracy 1. Basic Concepts of Bureaucracy Bureaucracy is “a type of organization designed to 2. Development of Bureaucratic Organizations accomplish large-scale administration tasks by systematically coordinating the work of many individuals.”¹ 3. Characteristics of Bureaucracy German sociologist Max Weber was the first scholar to describe the characteristics of bureaucracy 4. Characteristics of Philippine Bureaucracy systematically. He was also the first to analyze its role in an industrial society. In Weber’s view, bureaucracy is the best form of 5. Philippine Bureaucratic Behavior organization. As an organization, it substitutes a rule of law for a rule based on the whims of those who happen to govern. In the latter case, the superiors were apt to be Basic Concepts of Bureaucracy moved by “personal sympathy and favor, by grace and gratitude.”2 Bureaucracy is “a specific form of social organization for administrative purposes. 195 Over the years, bureaucracy has become the dominant form of organization in modern societies. Yet, many of these organizations particularly in the Philippines, were Speaking in the same vein, Marshall E. Dimock states: apparently organized by people with little knowledge and understanding of bureaucracy, as well as of its far- reaching implication in the lives of the people. Bureaucracy is reflected in certain specific forms of organizational behavior: hierarchy, subdivision, specialization, fixed ways of doing things, and Very often, therefore, bureaucracy is used in a negative professionalization. 6 manner. As such, it fails to produce the organizational results with adequate efficiency. People cannot be expected to support an organization which they are not Moreover, bureaucracy is “that type of hierarchical familiar with. organ- ization which is designed rationally to coordinate the work of many individuals in pursuit of large-scale administrative tasks.”” As Dalton E. McFarland says: As Peter M. Blau states: Colloquially, the term “bureaucracy” has become an epithet which refers to inefficiency and red tape in the In bureaucratically organized systems, authentic government; but this was not the original meaning, and it authority, which binds the various levels together, is not the way the term will be used.4. originates at the top and passes through the organizations as managers delegate it downward. Since bureaucracy is misunderstood and misinterpreted by many people, it is essential to know and understand Development of Bureaucratic Organizations its nature. Observance of the classical principles of organization In this chapter, therefore, the following subjects will be produces bureaucracy. However, it requires certain dis- cussed to attain a clearer understanding of the conditions for its development. nature of bureau- As William G. Scott and Terence R. Mitchell say: things being equal, always, from a formal, technical point of view, the most rational type. For the needs of mass administration today, it is completely A civilization must reach a certain degree of maturity indispensable. The choice is only that between bu- before bureaucracies emerge to exert a significant reaucracy and dilletantism in the field of administration, influence on the life patterns of people in a society. The 12 institutions in society must be differentiated in terms of the role they play. Differentiation takes place along functional lines; for example, the separation of the Weber’s view was supported by Socorro S. Espiritu, a economic functions from the family. In this sense, the Filipino sociologist, when she said: family is по longer the locus of the production of goods and services. Instead, such activities are centralized in specialized institutions, 10 Bureaucratic structures in institutions are not necessarily con- fined to political organizations; they tend to develop wherever it is necessary to coordinate When Max Weber defined bureaucracy, he saw it as the the activities of many people. Bureaucracy offers both an most efficient form of organization arising out of the efficient mechanism for reaching institutional goals and needs of an industrialized society for the effective the danger of allowing the mechanism to appear more administration of its large and complex organizations. important than the service it is supposed to perform. 13 As Weber points out: In an article, S.N. Eisentadt discusses the conditions within a society which the framework for the development of bureaucratic organization applies. 14 Experience tends universally to show that the purely bureaucra tic type of administrative organization that is, the monocratic varie- ty point of view, capable of As Scott and Mitchell argue: attaining the highest degree of efficiency and is in this sense formally the most rational known means of carry- ing out imperative control over human beings. It is The society as a whole must be in a position to supply superior to any other form in precision, in stability, in the the re- sources for support of bureaucratic organizations. stringency of its discipline, and in its reliability. It thus As such, society is expected to underwrite bureaucratic makes possible a particularly high degree of calculability activities. Theoretically, there- fore, the bureaucracy has of results for the heads of the organization and for those to pursue socially acceptable goals, 15 acting in relation to it. It is finally superior both in intensive efficiency and in the scope of its operations, and is formally capable of application to all kinds of administrative tasks, 11 Characteristics of Bureaucracy The increasing complex organization can be simplified by Although Weber studied mainly government institutions breaking down its structure into manageable parts. to extract the essential elements of his concept of Hence, as an alternative to the prevailing conditions, bureaucracy, it appears that several of its principal Weber caused the institu- tionalization of bureaucracy. characteristics could be found in any organization as long as they had the following features: In advocating bureaucracy, Weber again states: 1. Large and complex organization as measured by the number of people it employed; The development of the modern form of the organization of corporate groups in all fields is nothing less than identical with the development and continued spread of 2. Majority of those employed were performing bureaucratic administration. This is true of church and semi-skilled and unskilled works; state, of armies, politi- cal parties, economic enterprises, organizations to promote all kinds of causes, private associations, clubs, and many others. The develop- ment is, to take the most striking case, the 3. Relatively simple mass production technology is most crucial phenomenon of the modern Western applied: and state.... The whole pattern of everyday life is cut to fit this framework. For bureaucratic administration is, other  4. Relatively simple product is produced. From his “ideal type” model of bureaucracy, Weber iden- tified two preeminent characteristics in all formal organizations. These are: division of labor and centralization of authority. 17 By simplifying its complex organizational structures, it is In the 1930s, James D. Mooney and Alan C. Reiley, Ame- expected that a bureaucracy will attain efficiency, rican social scientists, added coordination as the economy, and greater reliability for its performance. “modern prin- ciple” but only because they understood that without it, organi- zations could not function rationally in the face of continuous specialization. The following characteristics of an organization could be Moreover, as McFarland says: used for the analysis of a bureaucracy: 16 The characteristics of bureaucracy are present in all large organizations which fulfill vital functions efficiently. 1. Positions and offices are clearly defined. In However, the structural characteristics of an principle, all positions and offices exist organization “are determined largely by environmental independently of the incum- bent. The values, demands, res- ponses, and limitations-20 incumbent perform their roles during official hours according to contract and are personally On this matter, Robert Presthus adds: free to do as they wish after such hours. They seek to determine the channels through which external social inputs are evaluated and acted upon within an organization and frequently stress, with 2. The hierarchical arrangement of authority, rights, considerable normative zeal, the need for greater and obligations are specifically drawn. Levels of organizational sensitivity to noninstitutional social superordina- tion and subordination with their variables, 21 corresponding salaries and other privileges and responsibilities are defined. Communication “Ironically,” Presthus points out, “much less attention through channels or protocol and other has been paid to the most pervasive of all environmental procedures are highly regularized. Requirements factors Culture.”22 are set up for some degree of coordination and integration above divergent individual views with Richard H. Hall suggests that the degree of regard to the pursuit of the social organization’s bureaucratization can be determined by measuring the common goals and objectives. following dimensions or key elements of the “ideal-type” bureaucracy of Weber: 3. The personnel are selected on the basis of 1. A division of labor based upon functional technical or professional qualifications. specialization, 2. A well-defined hierarchy of Personnel are chosen on the basis of authority, competence through competitive examinations and are expected to perform accordingly. 3. A system of rules covering the rights and duties of positional Incumbents, 4. A system of procedures for 4. There are defined rules governing official dealing with work situations, behavior. There is maximum standardization of action so as to minimize personal prejudice, 5. Impersonality of interpersonal relations, and interest, preferences, and subservience. Subordinates are uniformly protected from any 6. Promotion and selection for employment possible unjustified treatment by their based upon technical competence.28 superiors. Employees, as a whole, are bound to carry out their roles accordingly and to maintain As a social organization, bureaucracy has ingroup feelings to protect their social strongand weak organization from outsiders. Points. As such, Warren G. Bennis believes that 5. Security of tenure and the pursuit of a career bureaucracy, as described by Weber, must with pro- motion in the hierarchy are assured. change significantly if it is to continue as a Promotions based on seniority and merit, functional element of modern society. He though slow, occur periodically to maintain suggests that a new form of bureaucratic morale and competent performance. Tenure is organization should be formed to meet the secure as long as there is no gross misconduct changed environmental conditions. 24 in the performance of one’s role in the office. The “old-style” bureaucracy is eminently suitable for ma- naging “the routine and 2. Recruiting and continuously developing predictable in human affairs.”25 As such, Scott employees with a deeply ingrained sense of and Mitchell believe that “there are six forces at responsibility and competent standards of work which are demanding that organizations performance. modify both structure and climate to cope successfully with the realities of modern 3. Inculcating in future executive and environ- ment.” 26 supervisory personnel at all levels the ability to set up a workable balance between the very These forces are: rigid and the very lax types of bureaucracies. 1. An acceleration in change that requires rapid 4. Establishing a system of periodically studying organizational adaptation. the actual operation of the social organization, identifying its defects and de- vising expedient 2. Increasing technological sophistication which means with which to remove barriers to lends to the acceleration of change. satisfactory and efficient operations. 30 3. Growing organizational complexity which is Each of the solutions suggested by the Filipino partially attri butable to technology and partially sociologists represents a distinct method of a result of increasing organi- zational size. improving personnel administra- tion in a bureaucratic organization. 4. Changing character of the workforce in which However, Robert K. Merton says that one more highly educated, professionally oriented consequence of bureaucratic structuring on the people are going into organi- zations. behavior of organizational parti- cipants is disruption in goal achievement. 31 5. A growing expectation of the "new" employee for greater free- dom and discretion at work. Characteristics of Philippine Bureaucracy 6. More disenchantment with traditional In 1955, Onofre D. Corpuz made a study of the authority, with emphasis based on a decline of actual opera- tions of Philippine bureaucracy. Its command (superior-subordinate) authority and important characteristics can be summarized as the rise of functional authority vested in follows: 32 expertise 27 1. Vulnerability to nepotism. Underlying Pointing out the weak points of bureaucracy, Philippine bureaucracy are substructures of Dale says: small kinship groups. Members of family groups by consanguinity, by affinity, and by But a bureaucracy has one major fault. It has ritual kinship (or compad- razgo) give top difficulty in changing its ways, except very priority to family loyalty. Within such group- slowly. And because it resists change, it does ings, all of them feel that they are under not attract those who can conceive constructive obligation to help each other in a variety of changes and put them into effect. 28 ways. "In spite of some negative characteristics," 2. Perpetuation of the spoils system. The Espiritu believes that "bureaucracy is still the passage of the Civil Ser- vice Law (C.A. No. only systematized method of carrying the vital 177, as amended by R.A. No. 114) has set tasks of institutions."29 up, besides classified service, unclassified and temporary posi- tions which have Moreover, there are possible solutions to the become convenient instruments for the problems of bureaucracy. As Felicidad V. prac- tice of nepotism, of patronage, and of Cordero and Isabel S. Panopio, Fili- pino influence peddling. sociologists, have written: The bureaucracy's congenital defects which 3. Apathetic public reaction to bureaucratic arise from its very nature are not, however, misconduct. The almost daily publication of entirely nonremediable. They may be minimized official misconduct become a part of by: “normalcy” in the mid-1950’s. The people looked upon the phenomenon as a 1. Sensitizing prospective employees to the concomitant result of the increasing strengthening and weakening effects of informal complex- ity of the government, a method of relationships in varied social institu- tions within political harassment, and a natural way of the bureaucracy.  fulfilling political promises to the society itself. Primarily, it will have to be a unemployed and underemployed segments tool for innovations. of the population. Philippine Bureaucratic Behavior 4. Availability of external peaceful means of correcting bureau- cratic weaknesses. Devices, such as constitutional rights and The Philippine bureaucratic behavior is influenced by its privileges freedom of speech, freedom of socio-economic structure, as well by the traditions and the press, freedom of assembly, civic action cultures of the Filipinos. As pointed out by Cordero and have been used for rectifying the defects Panopio: and misdeeds of bureaucracy. The behavior of human beings is largely influenced by 5. Survival of historical experience. the structure and function of the social organizations in Centralized in organization, the Philippine which they political bureaucracy was administered according to a civil law system which the Spanish bureaucracy prescribed. Filipinos Live, 33 On the other hand, the behavior of people largely have used the Spanish political bureaucracy influence the behavior of the organizations. as the scapegoat for all the weaknesses of the Philippine political bureaucracy. There are indications, however, that the weak- nesses are not to be totally and directly The traditional values that tend to predominate the attributed to the Spanish government Philip- pine setting are those that center on the family. bureaucracy. The Filipinos, later on, used The family sys- tem is the extended bilateral type which the American techniques of ad- ministering is bound by strong kin- ship ties. the bureaucracy. They also patterned its organiza- tional structures and operational procedures on American models. A considerable importance is given to the compadrazco system, one which ties people through a religious 6. Nonspecial typing of bureaucrats. Filipino ceremony. bureaucrats do not comprise a clearcut social class. Other occupational groups do not look upon civil service “as a special A high respect is also accorded to social status rather calling reserved to a special class or groups than merit, while a strong emphasis is placed on primary of persons” with specific habits, skills, group interest and relationship. This status oriented motives, interests, prerogatives, values, and behavior is projected in the desire to establish an symbols to be cons- ciously pursued, association with the elite. promoted, and protected, respected or as- sailed.” Thus, Filipino bureaucratic organization consists of per- sons with varied family backgrounds, aspirations, The superordinate role of the elite is further stressed by educational training, and work experiences. the fact that in any community project or political function, the elite is always consulted for advice, moral 7. Lack of independence from politics. support or financial contri- bution before anything can Because of the absence of “class be done. This culture impregnates the bureaucracy. consciousness” and of a feeling of unity on the part of the Filipino bureaucrats and the stigma of post-World War II ill-repute, the Superimposed upon the Weberian bureaucratic model Philippine bureaucracy’s “merit system” are the conflicting Philippine value patterns of was easily subject to attack and tampering segmentation, personalism, and reciprocity. The sense by politicians. They worked through the of pity (awa) tends to distort efficiency ratings of legislative and executive branches of the subordinates. The heightened sense of self-esteem national government. (amor-propio) expends much energy on interpersonal maneuverings directed at maintaining one’s status. 8. Essential instruments of social change. In spite of its weak- nesses, the Philippine Equally limiting values are the sense of gratitude with bureaucracy’s function in nation-building unend- ing reciprocity (utang na loob), sense of will be as big, as complicated, and as camaraderie (pakikisama), paternalism, padrino system demanding as the function of the whole and authoritarianism which pressure the bureaucrat to conform to and meet parochial, dyadic, and kinship themselves into a collective mode of decision- obligations over a consciousness of merit and efficiency. making and responsibility that defines bureaucratic structure. Because of this situation, they have the tiyaga (patience) in Many social scientists considered the following as some accepting and bearing consequences of of the types of behavior of the Philippine bureaucracy: difficulties in their lives. Their patience may or may not involve hard manual work. How- ever, it almost always involves a deep abiding faith that super- natural spirits will, in the long run, reward 1. Conformity to policies. Bureaucracy stresses them with good fortune for their patience and unques- tioning compliance to organizational endurance of difficulties. This behavior of a policies, rules, and regula- tions. Thus, there is a Filipino, Cordero and Panopio say: Referring to tendency for the bureaucrats to adhere to conformity within the bureaucratic framework. It has led to his lack of foresight, his As Robert K. Merton says: contentment with the past, his indolence, and his lack of initiative, self-reliance, or pioneering Discipline, readily interpreted as conformance spirit. 39 with regulations, whether the situation, is seen not as a measure designed for specific purposes 4. Politically supportive. The bureaucratic system but becomes an immediate value in the life- in the Philippines tends to support the political organization of the bureaucrat. This emphasis, party in power. resulting from the displacement of the original goals, develops into rigidities and inability to The Filipinos are status-oriented. Authority adjust readily. Formalism, even ritualism figures determine, to a large extent, the ensures with an unchallenged insistence upon satisfaction or frustration of the Filipino’s punctilious adherence to formalized aspiration for social acceptance, economic procedures. This may be exaggerated to the security, and social mobility. 40 40 point where primary concern with conformity to the rules interferes with the achievement of the Other characteristics of the Filipino pur- pose of the organization. 34 bureaucrats, such as bahala na, saka na, awa (pity), amor propio (self-esteem), also greatly The Filipino is authoritarian. When power is affected the Philippine bureaucratic behavior. given to him, he makes known to everyone that 41 he is the boss. He prefers also to have everything done his way. Thus, he stifles Greed, laziness and ignorance are among the initiative, self- reliance and sharing of ideas, vices that have weakened the bureaucratic especially with those people from the lower system. While the people afflicted with these ranks of the organization. 36 vices constitute less than one percent of the entire civil service in the Philippines, they have The Filipino traits, such as hiya (shame), utang tainted the vast majority of honest, selfless, and na loob (a debt of gratitude) and SIR (desire for dedicated government workers. 42 smooth interpersonal rela- tions) are closely related to each other in accentuating authoritar- Summary ianism in the Filipinos. 36 Structurally, the government is a bureaucracy. 2. Preference toward continuity and routinization. Over the years, bureaucracy has become the Bureau- cracy puts much emphasis on dominant form of organization in modern specialization. Hence, there is a general societies. preference for the bureaucrats to maintain the status quo in the organization. It has led to the Very often, bureaucracy is used in a negative Filipino’s negative attitude to- wards change. manner for its in failure to produce the organizational results with adequate efficiency. Moreover, a Filipino is gaya-gaya (imitative). Imitativeness, says Alfredo Roces, causes the The observance of the classical principles of Filipinos to emphasize on facade, such as organization produces bureaucracy. However, palabas, pakitang tao (or “putting the best foot this requires certain conditions for its forward,” often neglect- ing details or depth of development. meaning) and anachronistic combination of elements, where inconsistent traits are put The increasingly complex organization can be together to make up a whole. 37 simplified by Der breaking down its component parts into simple manageable structures. As a 3. Loss of self-direction or self-assertion. The result, Weber’s bureaucracy was Filipino bureaucrats tend to submerge institutionalized. To Organizations are not alike. Yet, when all the differences are taken into consideration, many common elements stand out. Basically, they are all bureaucratic organizations. By simplifying its complex organizational structures, it is expected that a bureaucracy will attain its goals of efficiency, th economy, and greater reliability in producing its outputs. As a social organization, bureaucracy has strong as well as ne weak points. In spite of some negative characteristics, it still is the o only systematized method of carrying out the vital tasks of insti- tutions. Moreover, there are possible solutions to the problems. Each of the solutions represents a distinct method of improving its personnel administration. Over the years, the characteristics of Philippine bureaucracy has taken on nothing significant to create changes, inspite of the efforts of the government to reform it. The Philippine bureaucracy has its own types of behavior.