Nationalism and Ultranationalism During Times of Conflict PDF

20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:26 PM Page 166 Nationalism and Ultranationalism during Times of Conflict...

20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:26 PM Page 166 Nationalism and Ultranationalism during Times of Conflict Edmund Burke was an Irish philosopher who served for many years in the British House of Commons. He is best known for his support of the American colonies leading up to the American Revolution and for his stand against the French Chapter Revolution. Speaking on the fate of the British Empire, he said: 8 “ I dread our own power and our own ambition; I dread our being too much dreaded … We may say that we shall not abuse this astonishing and hitherto unheard-of-power. But every other nation will think we shall abuse it. It is impossible but that, sooner or later, this state of things must produce a combination ” against us which may end in our ruin.1 Based on Burke’s quotation, what cautions does he have about Britain’s pursuit of national interests? What possible consequence is he predicting for Britain? Chapter Issue In times of conflict, to what extent are nationalism and ultranationalism expressions of the pursuit of national interests? In Chapter 7 you read about the complexities associated with nations pursuing their national interests. A nation’s pursuit of national interests may compete with those of another nation. When the interests of a nation begin to interfere with other nations, these actions may lead to ultranationalism. Ultranationalism is an extreme form of nationalism, often involving extreme patriotism. Ultranationalism often causes conflicts and interferes with co-operation between nations. In this chapter you will analyze nationalism and ultranationalism Figure 8-1 ▲ during times of conflict and consider the relationship between A postcard commemorating the nationalism and ultranationalism. The following inquiry questions contributions of the British colonies during the First World War. will be used to guide your exploration: How did nationalism influence the pursuit of Canadian national interests during the First and Second World Wars? 1 Edmund Burke, “Remarks on the Policy of the Allies with Respect to France,” in The Works of Edmund Burke, vol. 4 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1901), p. 457. 166 Chapter 8: Nationalism and Ultranationalism during Times of Conflict 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:26 PM Page 167 How did ultranationalism develop in Germany as an extension or expression of national interests? What role did national interest play in the development of ultranationalism during the First and Second World Wars? This chapter also supports your investigation of the Main Issue for Part 2 (chapters 6–10): To what extent should national interests be pursued? SP Analyzing and Evaluating Historical Perspectives S K I L L P AT H Analyzing Propaganda Plain folks: a technique by which someone tries to convince the public that his views reflect, and work to The information that an individual receives can be the benefit of, the common person inaccurate, biased, unreliable, or misleading. Testimonial: quotations or endorsements that attempt Propaganda is the art of persuasion. It is the systematic effort to connect a famous or respected person with a product to spread opinions or beliefs, often by distortion or or item deception. The information or viewpoints may not present Transfer: an attempt to link two items in a person’s mind, two sides or multiple perspectives on a topic or issue. often by linking one of the items to something the person Propaganda appeals to emotion rather than reason, and may dislikes2 not examine evidence or may present false or unsupported Other techniques of persuasion using misleading arguments statements not based upon factual evidence. include ethnocentricity, omission, overgeneralization, Experts in the art of propaganda use a variety of methods to stereotyping, and appeals to emotion or the past. spread a message, opinion, or belief. An example of a field Propaganda is used during times of war to inspire war that may use propaganda is advertising. Propaganda efforts, raise morale, and discredit opponents or techniques often depend on errors in thinking, or fallacies. dishearten the enemy. Some common propaganda techniques are: Step Collect Information Bandwagon: convincing people to join a particular side Collect possible examples of propaganda, such as because others are joining it as well 1 speeches, posters, billboards, TV advertisements, Card stacking: only presenting information that is positive TV programs, movies, news stories, or articles. to an idea or proposal and omitting information contrary Figure 8-2 shows a Canadian poster from the 1917 election. to it; sometimes called “selective omission” The Unionist Party was formed by the Conservatives asking the Glittering generalities: words that have different positive Liberals to join them in a united war effort against Germany. meaning for individual subjects, but are linked to highly The leader of the Liberals, Sir Wilfrid Laurier, declined, valued concepts although many of his Liberals did join the Unionists. The Name-calling: using derogatory words or language when poster equates a vote for the Liberals with a vote for Germany. describing an enemy in order to stimulate prejudice Figure 8-3 shows more propaganda posters from the First World War. 2 From: http://library.thinkquest.org/C0111500/proptech.htm. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 167 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 168 Figure 8-2 ▲ Figure 8-3 ▲ Unionist Party poster, 1917. Artist unknown. An assortment of First World War Canadian propaganda posters. The upper right poster is translated: 230th French Canadian Infantry / Forward! For the King for your country, Step Analyze the Information for France your blood, for humanity and liberty / To your weapons! / Sons of Montcalm and of Châteauguay. 2 Based on the evidence in each poster, answer the following: Audience: For whom was the poster intended? Make a Decision on the Issue Step Context: What was the intent of the poster? Message: What ideas, values, and beliefs are being 4 After examining the propaganda posters in Figure 8-3, write a short response to the communicated? Chapter Issue: In times of conflict, to what extent are Technique: What propaganda techniques are used nationalism and ultranationalism expressions of the in the poster? pursuit of national interests? Using the 1917 Canadian election poster, write a Step Evaluate the Information position on the question: To what extent is propaganda 3 Assess the impact of these propaganda posters. What emotions or responses do the posters a tool of nationalism during times of conflict? evoke in you? In what ways does this propaganda support nationalism? Ultranationalism? Explain. 168 Chapter 8: Nationalism and Ultranationalism during Times of Conflict 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 169 Nationalism in Canada during the First Fast Facts and Second World Wars Some First Nations communities opposed the attempted conscription Question for Inquiry of band members under the Military Service Act for the First World War. How did nationalism influence the pursuit of Canadian But many First Nations and Métis national interests during the First and Second World Wars? people voluntarily served in both world wars. Though they had to give First World War Conscription Crisis up their status or treaty rights to do so, these veterans are proud to have At the beginning of the 20th century, Canada was a young country, served. only 33 years old. In fact, residents of Canada were still considered subjects of Britain, not Canadian citizens. Canada’s only previous involvement in an international conflict, the Boer War (1899–1902), PAUSE AND REFLECT occurred as a result of our close ties with Britain. When Britain declared war against Germany in 1914, as a member of the British Why was Borden determined to Empire, Canada was automatically also at war. Prime Minister Borden commit Canada to sending a declared it was Canada’s duty to stand “shoulder to shoulder with large number of soldiers to war? Britain.” After all, Borden added, “when Great Britain is at war, Canada Why might conscription be is at war, and there is no difference at all.”3 supported in Ontario and other parts of Canada? Why did Early hopes of a quick victory changed as the war became a long- conscription act as a divisive drawn-out series of deadly battles. By 1916, losses were so great among force rather than a unifying one Canada’s allies that Russia was near defeat and French soldiers were in this time of war? Does the mutinying. Canada had promised to send 500 000 more soldiers to conscription disagreement fight, despite there being only 1.5 million Canadian men of military indicate something about our age. The newly elected British government asked members of the national interests? Who decides, Empire to provide new troops. With Australia providing more troops and how do they decide, what than Canada despite having a smaller population, Prime Minister our national interests are? Borden was convinced that he needed to create a system of conscription to increase the size of Canada’s military. Through a series of political actions, Borden pushed through the Military Service Act, which required men of military age to register and face possible conscription. Angrily rejected in Québec as pro-British and by western farmers who feared the loss of farm workers, the Act resulted in violence that marked Canada for decades. Military Service Act, 1917 The Military Service Act, or conscription, aimed at enlisting 100 000 additional Canadian soldiers. Figure 8-4 ▲ 3 Histor!ca, “Peace and Conflict: The Conscription Crisis of 1917.” Soldiers standing by a sign denouncing http://www.histori.ca/peace/page.do?pageID=278. men who do not enlist. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 169 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 170 PAUSE AND REFLECT To accomplish this, it required men of military age to register or face arrest. However, men who did register could seek exemptions. If you had been eligible for From a military perspective, conscription was a success—it conscription in 1917, how would provided new soldiers by 1918, although only 24 000 of the you have responded? Should the conscripts actually fought. From a national unity perspective, the national interest become the Military Service Act was destructive, emphasizing the divisions that interest of all citizens during a existed between various segments of Canadian society. time of crisis? Henri Bourassa on Conscription during the First World War As the founder and editor of Le Devoir, Canada’s most influential French-language newspaper, Henri Bourassa was an outspoken supporter of viewing Canada as a bicultural and bilingual state made up of two nations. Bourassa insisted that the idea of deux nations was the true spirit of Canada. His beliefs were challenged by Canada’s involvement with Britain during the Boer War and by the conscription crisis, which he viewed as British imperialist actions. In a series of articles in Le Devoir, Bourasssa provided a Francophone voice in opposition to this imperialist alliance with Britain, which he saw as destructive. In my article of September 8, 1914, while refuting the principles and consequences of imperial solidarity and a continuance of the nationalist doctrine … I pronounced myself in favour of the intervention of Canada, as a nation, for the defense of the higher interests which unite our country with France and England … I had agreed to, within a reasonable time and in keeping with the country’s conditions, Canada’s free and independent intervention—free for the nation and free for individuals; but the government, all of Parliament, the politicians and the press in both camps have applied themselves to the systematic destruction of this freedom. “Volunteer” recruiting is being done by blackmail, intimidation, threats of all kinds. And 1 Why did Bourassa change above all, we have taken advantage of the emotions caused by the war to affirm, in an his view on Canadian even more intense and intolerant form, the doctrine of imperial solidarity, which is being involvement in the First victoriously fought and rejected by the statesmen and the Canadian people as a whole.4 World War? In another article, Bourassa wrote: 2 According to Bourassa, Weigh my words: for French Canadians, the advent of conscription would trigger a how would a nationalist process that would soon transform what is now perhaps the most peaceful and most and an imperialist be orderly people in the Americas into a revolutionary people. Once unleashed, this defined at this time? Who revolutionary spirit would rage not only against the military regime, but everywhere: in would support the factories, in agriculture, in every area of industry, society and politics.5 different ideas? Why? 4 “Reply from M. Bourassa to the Letter of Captain Talbot Papineau,” Le Devoir, 5 August 1916. http://www.histori.ca/peace/page.do?subclassName=Document&pageID=307. 5 Henri Bourassa, “La Conscription,” Montréal, Éditions du Devoir, 1917, p. 26, quoted in Richard, Béatrice, “Henri Bourassa and Conscription: Traitor or Saviour?” Canadian Military Journal, Winter 2006–2007, p. 77. http://www.journal.forces.gc.ca/engraph/Vol7/no4/PDF/11-richard_e.pdf. 170 Chapter 8: Nationalism and Ultranationalism during Times of Conflict 20-1 Ch8 7/15/08 12:03 PM Page 171 Second World War Conscription Crisis Emerging from a global economic depression in the 1930s, Europe saw the rise of fascist dictators with expansionist goals while Canada became increasingly isolated from involvement with Europe. When German military actions finally provoked Britain to declare war in September 1939, Canada’s government—led by William Lyon Mackenzie King, and in a show of sovereignty—did not automatically join the war. Instead, it waited a week before declaring war. During this week, the question of whether to declare war and to what extent Canada should participate in the war was debated in the House of Commons. Because of contributions made by the Commonwealth during the First World War, Britain had granted Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and others full independence through the Statute of Westminster in 1931. This statute allowed Canada to make its own decision regarding foreign actions such as war. To maintain national unity and keep his party in power, King’s Figure 8-5 ▲ Liberals stated that they would not resort to conscription. However, as the Second World War dragged on, it became Mackenzie King in a canoe heading calmly down a waterfall, paddle in apparent that Canada would need to increase its commitment. Few hand. men joined the military as the economy boomed, with Canadian factories building weapons for the war. Faced with the need to increase the size of the military, King held a referendum on conscription—not on whether to actually have conscription, but on whether King could be released from his promise of no conscription. King’s Liberals won a large majority and, by 1944, he was faced with the dilemma of how to increase the number of Canadian troops without dividing the country. The Québec reaction to conscription can be seen in the tone of this statement by a group called La Ligue pour le défense du Canada, explaining why its members opposed conscription: Because a small country of 11 million inhabitants cannot be, as it is claimed, the arsenal of the democracies and the allied nations, and at the same time, an inexhaustible reservoir of fighting men. Because Canada has already achieved and even surpassed the limit of its military effort. Because relatively speaking we have ready done at least as much as any of the major belligerents—Canada has no right, let alone obligation, to sabotage itself.6 In 1940, with little opposition, King’s government had passed the National Resources Mobilization Act, which provided troops for home defence: the defence of Canada. With no threat of invasion, these troops 6 “Dodging a Political Bullet: Prime Minister Mackenzie King Shrewdly Avoids Conscription during the Dark Years of the Second World War.” Canada: A People’s History. http://history.cbc.ca/history/ webdriver?MIval=EpisContent&series_id=1&episode_id=14&chapter_id=3&page_id=4&lang=E.Documen t&pageID=307. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 171 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 172 did little and most had no real desire to fight. In 1944, however, high casualties among enlisted troops once again raised the fear of conscription. Instead of national conscription, King saw the home defence troops, or “Zombies,” as a solution. A government order allowed Canada to send 16 000 Zombies overseas. After violent protests by these men, only about 13 000 were eventually sent to fight; few ever reached the battleground. Fortunately for King, the war ended soon and he survived Canada’s second conscription crisis, even being re-elected with Francophone support. Prime Minster King’s Speech on Conscription The plebiscite on conscription left a divided country and a divided Liberal Party. King set out to solve the problem by insisting the issue was still open. His approach could be summed up by his most memorable slogan, “Not necessarily conscription, but conscription if necessary.” The following is from Mackenzie King’s speech “National Security Plebiscite, April 7, 1942”: The issue at present is not conscription; it is whether or not the government, subject to its responsibility to parliament, is to be free to decide that question itself in the light of all national considerations. The government is not asking you to say whether or not conscription should be adopted. That responsibility the government is asking you to leave to itself and to parliament, with entire freedom to decide the question on its merits. The question of conscription, properly viewed, is a military question. The place to discuss it is in parliament. What the government now seeks for itself and for 1 Was conscription in Canada parliament is freedom to consider and debate and decide this question, like all during the Second World War other questions connected with the war, unrestricted by any pledge and in the light necessary? only of the needs of national security. 2 Should conscription ever be A part of our forces should be kept in Canada to protect us against attack; a part of our implemented in a democratic forces should be sent overseas to help defeat the enemy and thus prevent him from country? attacking Canada. Both tasks are equally essential to our safety. Anyone who tells you 3 Should nationalism be used that only one of these tasks is necessary is deceiving you. The government with the as a tool to pursue national information which it alone possesses is in a position to decide where Canada’s forces interests? can be used to the greatest advantage in defending Canada, and in helping to defeat Germany and Japan, or how the armed forces required can best be raised. We do not ask the people to make that decision. But we believe the matter is so important that the government and parliament should be completely free to decide the question wholly on its merits.7 7 Willian Lyon Mackenzie King, “National Security Plebiscite, 7 April 1942.” http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn- nhs/on/laurier/edu/edud_e.asp#03. 172 Chapter 8: Nationalism and Ultranationalism during Times of Conflict 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 173 Internment during the First World War The decades prior to the First World War saw mass immigration of people to Canada. In charge of this immigration was Clifford Sifton, who envisioned a desirable immigrant to be “a stalwart peasant in a sheepskin coat, born on the soil, whose forefathers have been farmers for ten generations, with a stout wife and a half-dozen children.”8 These “stalwart peasants” who were eagerly welcomed to Canada came not from Britain, but were mainly eastern European farmers. When the First World War began, Canada was home to many people from the countries with which it was now at war. By 1914, as many as 100 000 people of German, Austro-Hungarian, Ukrainian, and Turkish origin were living and working in Canada. Wartime rumours of invasion and supposed acts of sabotage raised the level of public hostility toward the “enemies within” and forced Figure 8-6 ▲ the government to take action. The War Measures Act was passed, giving the government the power to arrest and detain anybody Ukrainians at the Spirit Lake internment camp in northern Québec, circa suspected of being an enemy in the name of defence, security, and 1914–1920. While most of the interned order. Enemy aliens—people of German, Austrian, Hungarian, were men, many women and children Ukrainian, and Turkish descent—in urban areas were forced to register accompanied their husbands and family with police, had to carry identification cards, and could not own a gun. members to the camps as well. The internees ranged from citizens born in The unemployed were sent to 24 internment camps across Canada, Canada to more recent immigrants. where they worked in farms, mines, lumber camps, and steel mills, and in developing national parks. By the time the camps closed in 1920, two years after the end of the war, 6 enemy aliens had been shot and PAUSE AND REFLECT over 100 had died of various diseases while interned. In all, more than 8500 people were interned, including In what ways was nationalism or ultranationalism a factor in approximately 5000 Ukrainians. Internment was not equal for all, the internment program? What with class and culture playing an important role in determining national interests were served treatment. Wealthy internees lived in relative luxury, with families by this program? and servants, while others struggled, earning 25 cents per day. Public opinion played a significant role in justifying internment. Before the war there was resentment of the new immigrants, who PAUSE AND REFLECT were seen as taking the jobs of Canadians. The media created hysteria by portraying any accident as an act of sabotage. This hysteria Should the War Measures Act resulted in government orders banning any publication in “enemy have required the government languages.” As well, businesses were able to make up for labour to submit its proposals to shortages by using enemy aliens as low-cost workers. Parliament for approval? What national interests are War Measures Act, 1914 pursued through an act like With the perceived threat of enemy aliens, Robert Borden’s government the War Measures Act? To created the War Measures Act, which gave the government the power what extent are nationalism or ultranationalism factors in creating a War Measures Act? 8 Citizenship and Immigration Canada, Forging Our Legacy: Canadian Citizenship and Immigration, 1900–1977, “The Arrival of the Europeans.” http://www.cic.gc.ca/EnGLIsh/resources/publications/legacy/chap-2a.asp. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 173 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 174 to arrest and detain suspected subversives and dissidents. The wording of the Act was vague enough that the government had a wide range of powers and the ability to govern by decree when it perceived there to be a time of “war, invasion or insurrection, real or apprehended.” Governing by decree meant that the government could simply pass orders and avoid the lengthy parliamentary process usually required to pass legislation. The War Measures Act gave the federal cabinet any power it might ever need to preserve “the security, defence, peace, order, and welfare of Canada.” This single, short law allowed for thousands of wartime regulations to preserve the security of Canada, including: a) Censorship and the control and suppression of publications, writings, maps, plans, photographs, communications and means of communication; b) Arrest, detention, exclusion and deportation; c) Control of the harbours, ports and territorial waters of Canada and the movements of vessels; d) Transportation by land, air, or water and the control of the transport of persons and things; e) Trading, exportation, importation, production and manufacture; f) Appropriation, control, forfeiture and disposition of property and of the use thereof.9 Internment of Ukrainians during the First World War WWI Internment in Canada Elizabeth Withey The Edmonton Journal 25 August 2005 EDMONTON—Maksym Boyko was walking home from work in Ottawa in the autumn of 1914 when he was confronted by two police officers and promptly arrested. The 42-year-old unmarried carpenter, who came to Canada from the Ukraine in 1911, had committed no crime. But he was a Ukrainian immigrant. Boyko’s personal effects, including his prized pocket watch and the $150 cash he had saved since arriving in Canada, were seized and he was interned at Camp Petawawa, Ont., where he was forced to build facilities for the army. Boyko was one of more than 8 000 eastern Europeans, mainly Ukrainians, who were confined in internment camps across Canada—including some in Alberta— between 1914 and 1920 under the War Measures Act. 9 War Measures Act, 1914. http://www.infoukes.com/history/internment/war_measures_act. 174 Chapter 8: Nationalism and Ultranationalism during Times of Conflict 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 175 Another 80 000 of these immigrants were not sent to camps, but were forced to report to police and had their liberties and movements restricted. Some were deported; others were stripped of their right to vote. On Wednesday, Prime Minister Paul Martin signed an agreement recognizing Canada’s historical wrongs committed against Ukrainian-Canadians during the First World War. Maksym Boyko’s son, Otto, a retired RCMP officer in Edmonton, is part of an Edmonton-based group of internee victims’ descendants. “We’re still kind of angry, not only that it happened, but that the acknowledgement isn’t there,” Otto said. “If Dad had been a threat to the security of Canada, I would have no problem. But I do have problems with the seizure of his property—what little he had—and it not being returned.” … Otto remembers his father telling him about life in the camps. “He said it was very cold, the food was substandard and the guards were very rough. If (the internees) felt sick, they wouldn’t get food for the day, so that was a way of getting them out to work.” Otto’s father told him camp guards used racial slurs like ‘bohunk’ when they talked to 1 Should “enemy aliens” the immigrant labourers. Some who tried to escape were shot; others died of disease be forced to work and or exposure. There are internee cemeteries in both Kapuskasing, Ont. and Spirit Lake. lose their property because of conflict? In June 1916 Maksym was released from Spirit Lake (he had been transferred from Why or why not? Camp Petawawa) on the condition that he work in a steel mill in Hamilton. After the war ended, he moved to St. Catharines, then Saskatoon, where he married and raised 2 Consider the War a family. The carpenter’s watch and money were not returned. The Canadian Measures Act of 1914 government auctioned off immigrants’ confiscated possessions following the war. and the internment of Ukrainian immigrants. Maksym died in 1948, at the age of 77, when Otto was only 12. The government still To what extent was owed Maksym $24.61 for his labour. the government Otto, now 69, said his father’s treatment affected their entire family. detainment of “I recall when the Second World War was on, he called the whole family together, and he Ukrainian immigrants said, ‘If you see anybody come to the house that you don’t recognize, you let us know in the national right away,’” Otto said. “He was still concerned that the same thing might happen again.”10 interests of Canada? Internment during the Second World War Like Ukrainian internment during the First World War, the reason for Japanese internment during the Second World War was complex and was motivated as much by fear of foreigners as by national On 22 September 1988, then prime defence. Already subject to racist acts by organizations such as the minister Brian Mulroney made a BC Asiatic Exclusion League and by government through a policy formal government apology to limiting Japanese immigration, the Japanese were easy targets for Japanese-Canadians for the those promoting fear of invasion after the Japanese attack on Pearl internment and authorized a Harbor on 7 December 1941 and the defeat of British and Canadians compensation package for survivors. To hear the apology, follow the link defending Hong Kong from the Japanese. on the Perspectives on 10 Elizabeth Withey, “WWI Internment in Canada,” The Edmonton Journal, 25 August 2005. Nationalism website. http://www.orangerevolution.us/blog/UkrainianDiasporaCanada/_archives/2005/8/26/1171015.html. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 175 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 176 PAUSE AND REFLECT The Order-in-Council Pressured by western MPs, Prime Minister King announced the How does the Order-in-Council decision in 1942 to establish a 160-kilometre “safety zone” east of the reflect the pursuit of national Pacific Coast. On 24 February 1942, a secret Order-in-Council, P.C. interests in Canada? If 1486, gave the government the power to remove all people of “ultranationalism is an extreme Japanese descent, regardless of citizenship, from the safety zone. This form of nationalism often involving extreme patriotism,” meant that more than 22 000 people of Japanese ancestry, most of is the Order an act of them born in Canada or naturalized Canadians, were forcibly moved nationalism? Ultranationalism? “for their own safety.” In addition, the order restricted the types of Explain. jobs that Japanese could hold, their means of communication, and with whom they could associate. It even denied them the right to own cameras, radios, and firearms. Once evacuations started, all property that the evacuees could not carry, including homes and businesses, was placed in government custody and subsequently sold off by the government. Nearly 1000 Japanese-Canadian men were placed in enforced labour camps, another 700 were placed in prisoner-of-war camps, and over 12 000 were housed in detention camps in the interior of British Columbia. The remainder—mainly families who wished to stay together—were placed on farms or at sites outside of the protected areas with severe restrictions placed on their activities. Only about 700 suspicious people who protested too loudly were ever identified as a potential threat, but the civil liberties of all were suspended until four years after the war ended. 176 Chapter 8: Nationalism and Ultranationalism during Times of Conflict 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 177 Joy Kogawa Joy Nakayama Kogawa was only six years old when she and her family were transported to a camp in the interior of British Columbia. Already living in a society where racist acts were tolerated, Joy’s family had all their possessions and property confiscated by the government. Government actions took her family from the mountains of BC to a camp on the prairies near Coaldale, in southern Alberta, where they worked on fields of sugar beet farms. Joy is now an acclaimed Canadian author and poet. Excerpt from Obasan We are sent to Siloam, the pool called ‘sent.’ We are sent to the sending, that we may bring sight. We are the scholarly and the illiterate, the envied and the ugly, 1 How was the loyalty of Japanese- the fierce and the docile. We are those pioneers who cleared the bush and the Canadians to Canada challenged forest with our hands, the gardeners tending and attending the soil with our by the actions of the government? tenderness, the fishermen who are flung from the sea to flounder in the dust of the prairies. We are the Issei and the Nisei and the Sansei, the Japanese Canadians. We disappear into the future undemanding as dew.11 PAUSE AND REFLECT “found poem” a two-storied house uazusu shoji four chicken houses To what extent was the use of who was twice wounded an electric incubator internment by the Canadian while fighting with the princess pats and 2,500 fowls government during the First and in w.w.1 were sold for $1,492.59 Second World Wars based on had purchased nineteen acres of land after certain deductions similar pursuits of national under the soldiers’ settlement act for taxes and sundries were made interest? To what extent was and established a chicken farm mr. shoji received a cheque internment in both wars a his nineteen acres for $39.3212 result of nationalism or ultranationalism? Explore the Issues 1 From Francophone perspectives, was the 3 Were the internments within Canada during the Military Service Act of 1917 perceived as an First and Second World Wars acts of ultranationalist act of the Canadian nationalism or ultranationalism? Were there government? issues or concerns that could have justified these actions on the part of the Canadian 2 To what extent is conscripting soldiers government? Why or why not? nationalist or ultranationalist? 11 Joy Kogawa, Obasan. (Toronto: Lester and Orpen Dennys, 1981) pp. 111–112. 12 Joy Kogawa, “Found Poem,” in Woman in the Woods (Oakville, ON: Mosaic Press, 1985). Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 177 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 178 Development of Ultranationalism in Germany Question for Inquiry How did ultranationalism develop in Germany as an extension or expression of national interests? Many economic, social, and political factors led to the development of deep nationalistic feelings and the rise of Nazism in Germany. German Unification and the First World War Prior to 1867, a united German state did not exist. Once unification of the many German-speaking states did occur, they found themselves economically, technologically, and politically lagging behind the French and British, who had already established massive empires. Germany’s lack of colonies seriously limited their ability to acquire resources for the rapid industrial growth they achieved after unification. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 was the result of long- standing rivalries between France and the northern German states, disputes over which royal house should rule Spain, and an opportunity for Prussia to acquire territory and resources. Alsace-Lorraine, a French region on Germany’s western border, was rich in coal and iron ore deposits and home to a thriving textiles industry. Germany defeated France and gained control of this region, but French nationalism remained strong in Alsace, as did an anti-German sentiment. PAUSE AND REFLECT Germany experienced great economic growth, and by 1900 was an economic rival of Britain, surpassing it in many areas. As Britain’s How did conflict between economic strength relied on its widespread empire, the British navy France and Germany, and was key to economic success. Germany began to develop a naval force Britain and Germany, contribute to nationalistic feelings in to rival Britain’s navy, which was seen by the British as a direct Germany? How did the national challenge to their military and economic might. Britain’s natural ally in interests of each of these this challenge was France, for whom controlling the growing power of countries act as an instigating Germany was an important national interest. Soon, alliances developed factor in the First World War? throughout Europe that saw two major power blocs evolve: the Triple Alliance—Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy the Triple Entente—France, Britain, Russia In Chapter 7 you saw that tensions in Europe escalated as each nation sought to promote its own interests. Britain sought to maintain its economic status. 178 Chapter 8: Nationalism and Ultranationalism during Times of Conflict 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 179 France was being surpassed economically by Germany, and feared Germany’s growing power. In response, it made national security a primary interest. Russia was a growing industrial power but wanted to improve and modernize its economy and move into a position of influence around the Black Sea, the Balkan area. Germany wanted to build its military and assert its place in European politics. As you read the following review of the events leading to the rise of Nazi Germany, keep in mind the Chapter Issue: In times of conflict, to what extent are nationalism and ultranationalism expressions of the pursuit of national interests? How were the actions of the nations involved expressions of their nationalism and their national interests? The Treaty of Versailles and the Great Depression After the long and devastating First World War, the Triple Entente was victorious. The Paris Peace Conference in 1919 and the resulting Treaty of Versailles allowed the victors to promote their national Ideas and Opinions interests while hampering German development. “ The French wanted to remove the threat of German military power The Nazi Party Program stated from their border and, among other demands, wanted the return of in part: Alsace-Lorraine. In addition, they wanted the area 50 kilometres to the We demand the union of all east of the Rhine River declared a demilitarized zone and occupied by Germans into a greater Germany. Allied troops for 15 years. France also wanted financial compensation We demand that Germany be treated in the same way as other for the war. Not only had the war destroyed much of northern France, countries and we demand the but when the Germans withdrew they flooded mines and destroyed annulling of the Treaty of Versailles. railways. To compensate for this destruction, France was awarded the We demand land for our growing ” right to all coal mined in Germany’s Saar Valley until 1935, and population.13 Germany was to provide over $33 billion in reparation payments to France. Within a year, Germany was already behind in its payments. —“The Program of the Britain wanted to ensure naval superiority and sought to limit the National-Socialist (Nazi) size of the German navy. Britain did not support France’s demand for German Workers’ Party” reparation, because if Germany were forced to make large payments, Hitler and his party were an extreme it would weaken the country and strengthen France. In the postwar option for most German citizens. era, Britain was concerned about the rising threat of Bolshevism in How might the public perception of Russia and wanted to prevent a weakened Germany from falling German national interests have led under communist control. many German citizens to support the The terms of the Treaty of Versailles were a serious blow to extreme nationalism of the Nazis? German pride and to the country’s economy. One condition, Article 231, the war guilt clause, required Germany to accept sole responsibility for the war. Many politicians believed that Germany 13 From: http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/naziprog.html. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 179 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 180 PAUSE AND REFLECT would never be able to make its reparation payments, so they forced Germany to accept moral responsibility for the war. This clause, more How did the peace treaties than any other part of the Treaty, caused long-lasting resentment, contribute to German humiliation, and anger within Germany. By 1923, reparations had nationalism? How did the such a devastating impact on the German economy that its currency Treaty of Versailles reflect the became virtually worthless. national interests of the Within a few years of the end of the war, the German spirit was victors? humbled and the economy was in a shambles. Claiming that Germany had defaulted on its deliveries of timber, France invaded the Ruhr Valley in 1923. The terms of the Treaty were intended to keep Germany weak, but instead they backfired. German nationalism was revived, and hostilities toward the French increased. The German people had had enough and began to look for a way to rise from the devastating impact of the war. Just as Germany struggled with the impact of its reparation payments, the Western world was plunged into an economic depression triggered by the collapse of the stock market on 24 October 1929. During the Great Depression, left-wing parties gained power in Britain and extreme right-wing parties arose in Germany and Italy. Economic growth was halted by the Depression, and this gave fascist rulers justification for state control of the economy. Large public work programs not only rebuilt and made economies in Germany and Italy Fast Facts self-sufficient, but also rekindled national pride and reduced unemployment. Hydroelectric dams and highways were constructed, as The Nazis promoted the idea of a were massive public buildings that restored a strong sense of nationalism. Volk community, which meant that citizenship was characterized by The Rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party blood, not by geographical borders. Members of the Volk In Germany, Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party received wide support for were thought to be part of the the changes they brought to the people and the nation. Hitler argued superior Aryan race. that Germany needed to regain its great status and promised to liberate Germany from the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Seeing the Treaty as the source of Germany’s problems, Hitler pulled Germany out of the League of Nations and began rearming the military. PAUSE AND REFLECT Hitler’s expansionist policies were encouraged by the failure of the What role did nationalism League of Nations to stop Japanese aggression in Manchuria in the early play in Hitler’s rise to power? 1930s and Italy’s aggression in Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935–1936. A How did ultranationalism great Germany would require more land, so Hitler embarked on a develop in Germany as an policy of Anschluss, a union of Austria and Germany. Hitler coerced the extension or expression of Austrian government to legalize the Austrian Nazi Party, which national interests? eventually took power. 180 Chapter 8: Nationalism and Ultranationalism during Times of Conflict 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 181 ▲ Figure 8-7 This 1936 poster urges people to vote for Hitler by noting what he has done to promote automobile ownership in Germany. The caption reads: The Führer promised to motorize Germany. In 1932, 104 000 motor vehicles were manufactured, 33 000 people were employed, and goods with a total value of 295 000 000 marks were produced. In 1935, 353 000 vehicles were manufactured, Over 100 000 people were employed, and the value of goods produced was 1 150 000 000 marks. The Führer gave 250 000 people’s comrades jobs in the auto industry and its suppliers. German people: Thank the Führer on 29 March! Give him your vote! Is the poster an example of propaganda? Why or why not? Referring back to this chapter’s Skill Path may help you form your response. Fast Facts On 9 and 10 November 1938, in an event that became known as Kristallnacht, or “night of broken glass,” Nazis burned down Jewish businesses and homes, and physically assaulted Jews. More than 600 synagogues were raided and close to 300 were set on fire, While the Nazis completely disregarded the Treaty of Versailles, while hundreds of Jews were injured and 96 were killed. A total Britain and France were mired in the Great Depression and had little of 30 000 Jews were arrested and interest or financial means to do anything to stop the growing Nazi sent to concentration camps. power. In fact, some saw the right-wing Nazi Party as a way to counter During the Second World War, the growth of the growing presence of communism in Germany. the Nazis would kill an estimated Political indecisiveness by Britain and France caused them to follow a 6 million Jews. policy of appeasement, according to which they did little to stop Nazi actions if they did not directly conflict with their interests. As a consequence, Hitler felt emboldened to annex the Sudetenland, then occupy the rest of Czechoslovakia in 1939, then turn his sights on Poland. Despite British threats and promises to support Poland, Hitler’s invasion was quick and decisive, and met with no resistance from Britain. German nationalism soared as new territory populated with Germanic peoples became a reality. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 181 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 182 British Appeasement Despite Nazi aggression, Britain and France pursued a policy of appeasement, hoping that Hitler would not provoke another war on European soil. In September 1938, when negotiations between Germany and Britain were strained, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain addressed the people of Britain and the House of Commons. I can well understand the reasons why the Czech Government have felt unable to accept the terms which have been put before them in the German memorandum. Yet I believe after my talks with Herr Hitler that, if only time were allowed, it ought to be possible for the arrangements for transferring the territory that the Czech Government has agreed to give to Germany to be settled by agreement under conditions which would assure fair treatment to the population concerned … However much we may sympathize with a small nation confronted by a big and powerful neighbour, we cannot in all circumstances undertake to involve the whole British Empire in war simply on her account. If we have to fight it must be on larger issues than that. I am myself a man of peace to the depths of my soul. 1 Contrast Hitler’s pursuit of Armed conflict between nations is a nightmare to me; but if I were convinced national interests with Britain’s that any nation had made up its mind to dominate the world by fear of its force, and France’s pursuit of national I should feel that it must be resisted. Under such a domination life for people interests. who believe in liberty would not be worth living; but war is a fearful thing, and we must be very clear, before we embark upon it, that it is really the great issues 2 According to Chamberlain, what that are at stake, and that the call to risk everything in their defense, when all were Britain’s national interests the consequences are weighed, is irresistible. at time? For the present I ask you to await as calmly as you can the events of the next 3 To what extent was Chamberlain few days. As long as war has not begun, there is always hope that it may be acting in the national interests of prevented, and you know that I am going to work for peace to the last moment. Britain at the time? Good night.14 4 What role did ultranationalism play in empowering Hitler? Explore the Issues 1 To what extent did the resolution of the First 3 How did national interests in Germany lead to World War, nationalism, and the pursuit of an increased nationalism in Germany? At what national interests by France and Britain lead to the point did German nationalism become development of ultranationalism in Germany? ultranationalism? 2 “Ultranationalism in Germany ultimately led to the Second World War.” Do you agree or disagree? Justify your answer. 14 Neville Chamberlain, “In Search of Peace” (1939), p. 393; and Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons (London: HMSO, 1938) vol. 339, 12th vol. of session 1937–1938, pp. 361–369, 373. 182 Chapter 8: Nationalism and Ultranationalism during Times of Conflict 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 183 Other Examples of Ultranationalism Fast Facts during the First and Second World Wars Japanese militarism has a strong tradition in Japan, with a code of Question for Inquiry rules and proper behaviour known as bushido. Bushido, or What role did national interest play in the development of “the way of the warrior,” gained ultranationalism during the First and Second World Wars? prominence in the Meiji period as a new slogan emerged urging Ultranationalism in Japan people to “enrich the country, strengthen the military.” Historically, Japan has had a long tradition of strong nationalism. Nationalist pride allowed the Japanese to repel mainland armies throughout its history and even to expel foreigners from the island nation in 1639. However, closing itself from foreign influence meant that Japan missed the Industrial Revolution and much of the other modernization that the Western world experienced. During the Meiji Fast Facts Period from 1868 to 1912, the doors were opened to foreigners, new In the mid-19th century, Shinto ideas flooded into Japan, and Japan industrialized rapidly. This created a became the state religion of Japan. demand for new resources to fuel growth. As a small island nation, The idea that the emperor was a however, Japan was resource poor. living god was used to promote unity, nationalism, and patriotism Ideas and Opinions up to the end of the Second World War. State Shinto was used to “ State Shinto helped to suffuse the national mind with notions of a justify the belief that Japan had a noble past rich in great traditions, a superior racial stock destined to right to rule over other Asian endure as an eternal national family, and a matchless state headed by peoples. ” an unbroken, inviolable, divinely descended imperial dynasty. —Shinto scholar Dr. Genchi Kato, quoted in Philip Lee Ralph, “State Shinto and Japanese Nationalism,” World Civilizations, 7th edition (London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1986), pp. 103–104. What parallels do you see between the doctrines of State Shinto and Nazism? PAUSE AND REFLECT Japan sought to acquire resources by conquering new lands, Korea, its How did the pursuit of nearest neighbour, was an obvious choice due to its coal and iron resources Japan’s national interests and strategic location. In 1884, a group of pro-Japanese reformers lead to an increased attempted to overthrow the Korean government but were stopped by nationalism in Japan? Chinese troops. Ten years later, a pro-Japanese Korean leader was assassinated by Chinese forces and his body displayed as a warning. The Japanese people were outraged and tension grew between the Japanese and Chinese governments, resulting in the declaration of the First Sino- Japanese War in August 1894. By April 1895, Japan declared victory over the Chinese, despite their smaller military forces. China agreed to pay a large indemnity and handed over Korea and Taiwan to Japan. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 183 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 184 With Japan’s defeat of China and the decline of the Chinese Qing Ideas and Opinions Dynasty, Russia began showing an interest in Korea and Manchuria. After a failed attempt at a diplomatic agreement with Russia, Japan surprised In 1901, Japanese Socialist leader Kōtoku Shūsui described the them by declaring war in February 1904. After a series of bloody battles drawbacks to imperialism: known as the Russo-Japanese War, Japan was victorious over Russia and the war officially ended in September 1905. With the defeat of the “ Imperialists in Japan and Russians, Japan became the first Asian country to claim a major victory elsewhere are like drunken men, intoxicated by patriotism and over a European one, thus establishing themselves as a major world militarism, which are nothing but power. expressions of their animal instincts. The First World War (1914–1918) allowed Japan to acquire most They bleed people white with taxes, of Germany’s Asian and Pacific colonies due to its alliance with expand armaments, divert productive Britain. During the war, Japan sent a list of demands to China that capital for unproductive ends, cause would give Japan significant economic and political power. At first, prices to rise, and invite excessive China refused, but when Japan threatened invasion China gave in and imports. These are all for the sake of provided Japan with much of the resources needed to drive the Asian the state. Government, education, industrial giant. Soon, the need grew for a strong Japanese military to commerce, and industry are sacrificed secure Japan’s new empire and gain the respect of Western nations. to patriotism, which is the root of The end of the First World War brought about a slowing of ” militarism and imperialism. Japanese production and a decline in the status of its military, which —Quoted in Akira Iriye, Pacific was seen by some as an unnecessary drain on public funds. Estrangement: Japanese and Ultranationalist factions of the military still had a strong influence, American Expansion 1897–1911.15 and the civilian government had difficulty keeping the radicals in line. A new government came to power in 1928. Vice-Minister of Foreign How might nationalism give rise to imperialism? Explain. Affairs Kaku Mori, who had strong ties with ultranationalist secret societies, urged interventionist policies in Manchuria and other parts of China. Weak governments, hampered by the devastation caused by Fast Facts the Great Depression (1929) and the resulting breakdown of In December 1937, Japanese soldiers international trade, could do little to prevent the secret societies from entered the Chinese city of Nanking, gaining power. This led to a brutal invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and where 90 000 Chinese soldiers had of China in 1937. Although the emperor was seen to have power, it is surrendered. Over a six-week period, likely that the real power lay in the hands of the military. the Japanese army tortured and Soon after the 1937 invasion of China, Japan issued the Amau killed at least 260 000 Chinese Doctrine, which stated that Japan assumed responsibility for peace in soldiers and civilians. Between Asia. Parts of northern China were seen as an essential part of Japanese 20 000 and 80 000 Chinese females national existence. Eventually, in 1940, a plan for the Great East Asia aged 8 to 70 were raped and then Co-Prosperity Sphere was announced and was used to justify killed by Japanese soldiers. imperialist expansion throughout Asia. Its ultranationalist intent was to establish a new international order that would align Asian countries PAUSE AND REFLECT with Japan, free of Western colonialism and domination. Slogans such as “Asia for Asians” became popular as Japan talked about liberating What evidence supports the Asian countries from the rule of imperial powers. contention that nationalism played a role in Japan’s attempts to become a major world power? 15 Akira Iriye, Pacific Estrangement: Japanese and American Expansion, 1897–1911 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972) p. 5. 184 Chapter 8: Nationalism and Ultranationalism during Times of Conflict 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 185 The defeat of Japan in the Second World War (1939–1945) Ideas and Opinions resulted in a complete removal of military influence in Japan. Instead, Japanese nationalism focused on industrial growth as the country rose In examining the rise of fascism in to become a major economic force in the world. Italy, historian George Mosse illustrates how fascism was a Ultranationalism in Italy combination of several ideologies that created a new one. Ultranationalism in Italy—as in Japan and Germany—had deep “ historical roots and many contributing factors. Italy gained national What is needed is a spark that unity between 1859 and 1870. To complete this unification, the inflames the enthusiasm and government sought to unite all those of Italian ethnicity within a will to serve the fatherland … That war [the First World War] made the natural border through a policy called irredentism. In addition, those greatest contribution to the formation nationalities that were willing to become Italian were also encouraged and goals of the fascist man: the new to join. In fact, one of the main reasons Italy joined the First World Italian fascist man … is a crusader in War on the side of the Triple Entente was its desire to acquire Italian the service of faith. That faith was a civic territories it perceived as being under foreign rule. The subsequent religion of nationalism, but even before victory of the Triple Entente resulted in Italy acquiring some of the the war, extreme nationalism had new land it claimed, but not all. On the Dalmatian coast, only the wanted to create a new man in order to city of Zaro and a few islands were given to Italy, despite its claim to fulfill their dreams for a new Italy … the entire region. Italian nationalists from the turn of Italy did not emerge from the First World War unscathed. The the century onward proclaimed a country was burdened with high inflation, a huge debt, and high revolutionary nationalism that would unemployment. Although its expenditures were three times greater depart from tradition … than its revenues, the government refused to make changes such as Nationalism was not supposed to higher taxes for the wealthy. There was a growing feeling that the old fulfill its traditional function of world order was collapsing and a new order was necessary. making time stand still but, instead ” Growing Italian feelings of patriotism encouraged newspaper was meant to revolutionize Italy. journalist Benito Mussolini to establish a political party, commonly —George Lachmann Mosse, referred to as the Fasci, that initially adopted a socialist platform of The Image of Man: The Creation democratic reform and workers’ rights. However, during the 1919 of Modern Masculinity. elections, the party won little support. Instead, the Socialist Party of (New York: Oxford University Italy gained widespread support, striking fear in the government and Press, 1996), p. 156. business elites, who worried a socialist victory would damage the weak postwar economy. The Fasci saw an opportunity to gain Is fascism a form of ultranationalism? widespread support by attacking socialists. Mussolini gained Why do you suppose fascism held a particular appeal for the youth of respectability when he was asked to be a member of the ruling Italy? government coalition. Emboldened by his rise to power, Mussolini planned a fascist uprising in 1922 to take control of the government by force. The uprising never took place, but the prime minister and his government resigned as a result of this threat. The king then asked Mussolini to form a government in October 1922. Nationalist feelings grew as Mussolini orchestrated the capture of several Greek islands and encouraged irredentism among those living on the islands of Malta Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 185 20-1 Ch8 7/14/08 9:27 PM Page 186 and Corsica. Mussolini began referring to the Mediterranean Sea as mare nostrum, or “our sea.” Through a series of new laws, the Fasci created a single-party state tha