Many Types of LTM PDF

Many Types of LTM Unit 8 Many Types of LTM Lecture Outline LTM Characteristics Ebbinghaus Encoding Specificity Semantic Network Memory Testing and Retrieval Explicit Memory Implicit Memory Amnesia Processing Fluency ...

Many Types of LTM Unit 8 Many Types of LTM Lecture Outline LTM Characteristics Ebbinghaus Encoding Specificity Semantic Network Memory Testing and Retrieval Explicit Memory Implicit Memory Amnesia Processing Fluency  Long Term Memory Working Memory (WM) Unattended Some info quickly lost Unrehearsed info will info quickly lost be lost  Working Memory (aka Short Term Memory) Long Term Memory (LTM) Capacity Limited; 7 +/- 2 Unlimited; ∞ Duration Temporary, ~ 1 min. Unlimited; ∞ Function Workspace Holder of all knowledge Ease of Entry Easy Hard Ease of Easy Hard Retrieval 4  Ebbinghaus Founder of scientific research on LTM Studying learning & avoid effects of prior knowledge/associations Studied nonsense syllables Used CVCs (Consonant-Vowel-Consonant) E.g. TIW, XUT, PED Test and re-tested himself over different time intervals  Ebbinghaus Results Forgetting occurs rapidly!!!! Slows over time We lose about half the new information we learn in a day Savings Although new info fades quickly, reviewing (relearning) prevents the loss. More review = Stronger Memory  Encoding Specificity Retrieval from LTM is best when encoding conditions match retrieval conditions. Encoding Specificity Memories are information rich Learning Material + Learning Context State Context Internal External Mental Location Physiological Surroundings Encoding Specificity: ZAPS Study condition Test condition Learn word pairs Recognition test: Old v new Example of “OLD” Trial Encoding Specificity: ZAPS: Results  Context-dependent learning What conditions lead to better memory? Water v. Land Testing Context Land Water Learning Context Good Bad Learning & Test Context Learning & Test Context Land Match Mis-Match Bad Good Learning & Test Context Learning & Test Context Water Mis-Match Match Mood Congruence: ZAPS Study Phase: Distractor task (puzzle task) 1. Positive mood induction Ensure test of LTM, rather Think about positive ideas, than WM memories, listen to positive music Test Phase: 2. Memorize words Two types of tests: Contains positive and Recall negative words Recognition Mood Congruence: ZAPS: Result  The context you are in contain “cues” to memory Cues -> more retrieval pathways = better remembering Real World Encoding Specificity Context reinstatement - re-creating the context present during learning (physically or mentally), improves memory performance The Semantic Network- Similar concepts are connected and organized via Meaning o l e arn r i t i st ea sie The n g n ew m e t hi so Semantic organization + number of connections (associations) Help memory storage and retrieval Spreading Activation Spreading activation - activating one concept in the network triggers activation in related concept via associative links Spreading Activation Similar to neurons Nodes have activation levels and fire a signal if the input reaches threshold. Spreading Activation Subthreshold activation - Activation level below the response threshold Activation is assumed to accumulate e.g. Summation Encoding specificity and the semantic network Learning: connections are strengthened between the context and the learned material. Learning Contex Material t Test: Sub-threshold activation of the material occurs if tested in the same learning context (CUES) helping in retrieval Testing Normal Better cues retrieval Contex  Resting activation in LTM Higher frequency words have higher Activation resting activation rates compared to low frequency(rare) words “cat” “okapi” How do we know Spreading Activation occurs? How do we know Spreading Activation occurs? Implicit Effects (Unconscious) – things we don’t know we know Implicit measures E.g. Priming - The facilitation (e.g. Reaction Time, Accuracy) or change in response due to prior exposure to a stimulus or related stimulus Does not need conscious awareness How do we know Spreading Activation occurs? Priming When items are presented in pairs, the semantic relationship between words affects RT. Group 1 Group 2 Bread Bread Butter Clock Fast RT Slow RT What is the nature of LTM? Many forms of LTM LTM  Explicit Memory (Conscious, Declarative) Episodic Memory - Tied to sensory details, time, and/or source of memory Memory for personal experiences ….do you remember the time…. Semantic Memory – NO sensory details, time, and/or source of memory general knowledge (facts, ideas, meaning and concepts) ……I know that Sacramento is the capital of CA. How do we know what information is in LTM? Retrieval to WM. Working Memory (WM) Unattended Some info quickly lost Unrehearsed info will info quickly lost be lost How is Explicit memory tested? DIRECTLY, just ask! Recall Recognition We need to produce items/info We need to identify items/info No/little cues available presented Requires search through memory Cues available Depends heavily on whether retrieval paths are available. Example Example Who wants to be a millionaire Jeopardy Multiple choice Short answer How is Implicit memory tested? How Do We Know That Information Outside of Awareness is “Active?” Indirect Memory Tasks! Implicit Memory (Unconscious, Non-declarative) Procedural Memory  Implicit Memory: Indirect Tests Priming - The facilitation (e.g. Reaction Time, Accuracy) or change in response due to prior exposure to a stimulus or related stimulus Does not need conscious awareness Repetition Priming - the second presentation of a stimulus is faster and more accurate than non-repeated items  Indirect Memory Tasks: Stem-completion and fragment completion Phase 1: Word exposure (do some task, e.g. lexical decision) Sofia sees word “Class” Bob sees word “Clam” Pat sees word “Clatter” Phase 2: Complete this word “CLA-” Result: Sofia, Bob, and Pat may complete the word differently. Indirect Memory Tasks: Word Naming Group 1 Group 2 Bread Brick Stapler Stapler Car Car Tree Tree Butter Faster Butter Horse Horse Indirect Memory Tasks: Lexical decision Word or Non-Word Word presented a second time Movie Jat Movie Dessert Magcet Faster reaction Time Example of repetition priming (you are not aware you are now faster)  Compare the novice to the expert! Perceptual Learning Speech sounds Face ID Sommelier Classical Conditioning Physiological reactions Emotional reactions How do we know Explicit memory is different from Implicit memory? Jacoby and Dallas Disassociations Double Dissociation Evidence for separate LTM stores (explicit v implicit) Jacoby & Dallas (1981) Task Answer a question about a word Depth of processing IV: Test Conditions Explicit: was the word on the list? Recognition memory Implicit: 35ms masked presentation, read the word Perceptual Identification (priming) DV: Accuracy Jacoby & Dallas Results Evidence for different types of LTM Explicit Memory shows the standard Depth of Processing effects Implicit Memory is not affected by DOP. Evidence for separate LTM stores (explicit v implicit) Ways to examine how brain functions and mental functions map onto each other: Dissociations A disruption in one cognitive process but no impairment in another E.g. H.M. Double Dissociation Reciprocal patterns of disruption Bechara et al., 1995 study  Retrograde Amnesia Explicit information before event is not retained Causes may include: brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma Associated with a psychiatric disorder called a “fugue”  Anterograde Amnesia Inability to store and/or retrieve new Explicit information person cannot remember anything newly acquired for more than 1 min without rehearsal Cause: Damage to hippocampus! H.M. had this Korsakoff’s syndrome Deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) Amnesia Amnesia supports the distinction between explicit and implicit memory Disassociation LTM People with Amnesia have functional Implicit Memory Double Dissociation: Reciprocal patterns of disruption E.g. HM Damage to Hippocampus Impairment of explicit with preserved implicit Reciprocal patterns of disruption? Impairment of implicit with preserved explicit Are there any patients who show this pattern? Yes! See Bechara et al., 1995 A Double Dissociation between explicit and implicit memory (Bechara et al., 1995): Patients: P1: Damage to hippocampus, intact amygdala : “HM” P2: Damage to amygdala, intact hippocampus : “MH” Task: Classical conditioning Blue light was followed by a loud boat horn, while other colors were not. The learned association between the blue light and horn was tested Explicitly: via asking Implicitly: via measuring fear response LTM Differences: Explicit v. Implicit IMPLICIT TEST EXPLICIT TEST MH HM Controls MH HM Explicit memory AND Implicit memory (e.g. fear response) MH: Damaged Amygdala Explicit memory, but NO Implicit memory (e.g. no fear) The Double Dissociation HM: Damaged Hippocampus NO Explicit memory, but has Implicit memory (e.g. fear response) Feelings of Familiarity  “False Fame” Study Jacoby, Kelley, Brown, and Jasechko (1989). Rough Methods Phase 1: Name exposure Phase 2: Rate the Fame: Name Shown list of fictitious names “Please pronounce these names” IV: Names E.g. Sebastian Weisdorf Old v. New ½ of the names were from Phase 1 DV: Fame Rating Overall Result: Fictitious names that were previously seen in Phase 1 were rated as more famous than other fictitious names (not shown in phase 1)  False Fame conclusions Why does this happen? Misattribution - details in memory are attributed to a wrong recollection or idea due to lack of source information (Source Confusion) How it happened: The familiarity of the name was misattributed. They saw the name before but they don’t remember where they saw the name The assumption is: If I know the name, they must be famous!  Illusion of truth The more familiar the claim, the more plausible it becomes Frequent exposure leads to “truthiness”  Illusion of Truth experiment List of plausible factoids "The first air force base was launched in New Mexico.“ "Large migration of Chinese railroad workers began in the 1880s.“ "Basketball became an Olympic discipline in 1925." Task: Belief Rating (e.g. much do you believe it is true)? Spaced based-processing Repetition of “factoids”: 3 different times spaced by two weeks new and old (repeated) statements Result: Repeated (old) statements —even those that had been labeled as false—were later judged to be more credible than new statements Hasher, Goldstein, Toppino, Repetition = Belief Illusion of truth Belief in a statement increases when more information (i.e. picture or verbal description) is present Illusion of truth Factors for truthiness: Repetition Spaced presentations Accompanying info: e.g. Pictures, extra verbal descriptions  Implicit Memory Processing fluency – the ease at which something is processed (e.g. perceived and/or recalled) Easy = true and/or familiar Difficult = false and/or unfamiliar Repetition priming Recently encountered items are easier to recognize a second time This may underlie feelings of familiarity  More on Processing Fluency Processing fluency may also affect what you think you know. Meta-memory Knowledge about one’s own memory, how it works, and how it fails to work Meta-cognition Knowledge about one’s own cognitive system and its functioning This is why you should test yourself without your study materials!!  Overconfidence in Memory Two factors: 1. Source memory — memory of the exact source of the information (episodic) 2. Processing fluency — the ease with which something comes to mind Note: Confidence and Accuracy of memory are not correlated. misattribution (source confusion) and processing fluency have real consequences Witness identification Misattribution (source confusion) Eyewitness may select someone from a photo lineup based only on familiarity, not on actual recall E.g. looks like someone you have seen, not necessarily the person who did it Processing fluency Clarity differences Clearer = easier to perceive = makes person seem familiar = That’s the perpetrator! Unclear = difficult to perceive = makes person seem unfamiliar = That’s not the perpetrator!