Chapter 1 Anatomy & Physiology Lecture Slides - McGraw Hill
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Summary
These lecture slides, provided by McGraw Hill, introduce the core concepts of anatomy and physiology. They cover topics such as the levels of organization within the human body, homeostatic mechanisms, and the fundamental characteristics of life, offering a comprehensive overview of the subject.
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Because learning changes everything. ® Chapter 01 Lecture Outline See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the...
Because learning changes everything. ® Chapter 01 Lecture Outline See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 1.1 Origins of Medical Science Early healers depended on superstition and magic. Followed by observations of injuries, wound healing, and dead bodies. This evolved into experimentation and creation of new terminology for anatomy & physiology. Finally, study of corpses and cadaver dissection brought new knowledge of the human body. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 2 Figure 1.1 Vesalius Illustration from 1543 Classic Image/Alamy Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 3 1.2 Anatomy & Physiology Anatomy: The study of the structure/morphology of the human body and its parts; derived from Greek for “a cutting up” Physiology: The study of the functions of the human body and its parts; derived from Greek for “relationship to nature” The structure of organs and parts of the human body determines the function. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 4 Figure 1.2 Anatomy Relates to Physiology Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 5 1.3 Levels of Organization All materials, living or non-living, are composed of chemicals, which consist of atoms. Subatomic Particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons that make up cells Atom: tiny particles that make up chemicals (hydrogen, carbon) Molecule: particles consisting of atoms joined together (water, glucose) Macromolecule: large particles consisting of molecules (D N A, protein) Organelle: functional part of a cell (mitochondrion, lysosome) Cell: basic unit of structure and functions (muscle, nerve, or blood cell) Tissue: layer or mass of cells with specific function (adipose tissue) Organ: group of different tissues with a function (heart, kidney, stomach) Organ System: group of organs with common function (digestive system) Organism: composed of organ systems interacting (human) Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 6 Clinical Application 1.1 Noninvasive procedures that provide images of internal structures: Ultrasound: High-frequency sound waves that provide images of soft internal structures; used to obtain sonogram of fetus in the uterus. Magnetic Resonance Scan (MR): Magnetic field changes alignment and spin of certain types of atoms; provides high-resolution images of internal structures, such as the brain. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 7 1.4 Core Themes of Anatomy & Physiology 1 Key Concepts: The cell: All living things consist of cells Internal environment: Environment within body Homeostasis: Maintenance of constant internal environment Interdependency of cells: Cells depend on each other Structure and Function: Interrelated Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 8 1.4 Core Themes of Anatomy & Physiology 2 Mechanisms and Processes: Gradients and permeability: Cells move from high to low, down pressure and concentration gradients, across permeable membranes Cellular differentiation: Specialization of cells due to gene expression Cell membrane mechanisms: Determine entry of substances, responds to signals Cell-to-cell communication: Via membrane receptors Feedback loops: Homeostatic mechanisms for stability Balance: Replacement of lost substances, elimination of excesses Energy processes: Keeps cells active Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 9 1.5 Characteristics of Life 1 Growth: Increase in cell number and size and increase in body size Reproduction: Production of new cells and organisms Responsiveness: Reaction to a change inside or outside of the body Movement: Change in body position or location; motion of internal organs Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 10 1.5 Characteristics of Life 2 Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions in a living system: Energy production and nutrient cycling Respiration: Making energy. Most organisms do it by taking in oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide Digestion: Breaking down food into usable nutrients for absorption into the blood Circulation: Moving chemicals and cells through the body fluids Excretion: Removing waste products Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 11 Requirements of Organisms 1 Life requires these environmental factors: Water, food, oxygen, heat, and pressure Chemicals: Water: Most abundant substance in body Environment for metabolic processes (intracellular and extracellular fluids) Required for transport of substances Regulation of body temperature Food: Provides necessary nutrients to supply energy Oxygen: Releases energy from food Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 12 Figure 1.4 Intracellular & Extracellular Fluids Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 13 Requirements of Organisms 2 Heat: Form of energy Helps maintain body temperature Partly controls rate of metabolic reactions Pressure: Application of force on an object Atmospheric pressure – important for breathing Hydrostatic pressure – keeps blood flowing Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 14 Homeostasis Maintenance of a stable internal environment Homeostatic Mechanisms: Self-regulating systems that monitor aspects of the internal environment and correct them as needed. There are 3 parts of a homeostatic mechanism: Receptor: detects and provides information about the stimuli Control Center: decision-maker that maintains the set point Effector: muscle or gland that responds to the control center, and causes the necessary change in the internal environment Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 15 Figure 1.6 Homeostatic Mechanisms Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 16 Negative Feedback Most common type of homeostatic mechanism Effectors return conditions toward normal range, and the deviation from set point lessens Called “negative” because the response to the change moves the variable in the opposite direction of the deviation from the set point Prevents sudden, severe changes in the body Examples: Negative feedback controls body temperature, blood pressure, and glucose level in the blood Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 17 Figure 1.7 Negative Feedback Illustration Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 18 Positive Feedback Uncommon feedback mechanism in the body The change/deviation is intensified, instead of reversed Activity of effector is increased initially, instead of decreasing Short-lived Produce unstable conditions, that seem like they will not lead to homeostasis, but they will. Examples: Blood clotting and the uterine contractions of childbirth Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 19 Figure 1.8 Positive Feedback Illustration Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 20 1.6 Organization of the Human Body Human body consists of 2 main portions: Axial portion: head, neck, and trunk Appendicular portion: upper and lower limbs Major body cavities of the axial portion: Cranial cavity: houses brain Vertebral canal (spinal cavity): contains spinal cord Thoracic cavity: houses lungs and thoracic viscera Abdominopelvic cavity: contains abdominal and pelvic viscera Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 21 Major Body Cavities Diaphragm: muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities Mediastinum: region between lungs in thoracic cavity, which contains heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus gland Abdominopelvic cavity contains 2 portions: Abdominal cavity: extends from diaphragm to top of pelvis, and contains stomach, liver, spleen, kidneys small intestine, most of large intestine Pelvic cavity: enclosed by pelvic bones, and contains end of large intestine, urinary bladder, internal reproductive organs Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 22 Figure 1.10 Major Body Cavities Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 23 Small Cavities of the Head Small cavities found in the head: Oral cavity Nasal cavity Orbital cavities Middle ear cavities Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 24 Figure 1.11 Small Cavities of the Head Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 25 Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Membranes The thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are lined by double- layered serous membranes, which secrete serous fluid (slippery fluid that prevents friction between layers). Serous membranes consist of 2 layers: Visceral layer: inner layer, which covers an organ Parietal layer: outer layer, which lines wall of cavity Examples of serous membranes: Visceral and parietal pleura (around lungs in thorax) Visceral and parietal pericardium (around heart in thorax) Visceral and parietal peritoneum (around abdominopelvic organs) Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 26 Organ Systems: Body Covering, Support, and Movement Integumentary System: Body covering, protection, body temperature regulation, sensory reception, production of Vitamin D Skeletal System: Support and movement, framework, protection, attachment sites, storage of inorganic salts, production of blood cells Muscular System: Support and movement, main source of body heat, of posture. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 27 Figures 1.14 and 1.15 Organ Systems Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 28 Organ Systems: Integration & Coordination Nervous System: Integration and coordination of organ function through nerve impulses and neurotransmitters; rapid short-term effects Endocrine system: Integration and coordination of organ function through chemical messengers called hormones; slower, longer- lasting effects Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 29 Figure 1.16 Organ Systems Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 30 Organ Systems: Transport Cardiovascular System: Transportation of gases, nutrients, blood cells, hormones and wastes Lymphatic System: Transportation of fluids from tissue spaces to blood, carries fats from digestive system to blood, and defends body against infection Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 31 Figure 1.17: Organ Systems Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 32 Organ Systems: Absorption & Excretion Digestive System: Receives food, breaks down food, absorbs digestion products, excretes waste Respiratory System: Moves air in and out of body, exchanges gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between blood and air; absorbs oxygen Urinary System: Removes blood wastes, regulates electrolyte & water balance and blood pressure, produces urine and excretes it by transporting it to outside of body Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 33 Figure 1.18 Organ Systems Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 34 Organ Systems: Reproduction Reproductive System: Male and female systems produce and transport sex cells, produce hormones, and produce new like organisms. Female also provides for fetal development and childbirth. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 35 Figure 1.19 Organ Systems Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 36 Table 1.3 Organ Systems Organ System Major Organs Major Functions The first column Integumentary shows Skin, hair, nails, organ sweat glands, system, sebaceous glands the second column Protect shows tissues, regulate receptors major organs, body temperature, support sensory and the third Skeletal column Bones, shows major functions. ligaments, cartilages Provide framework, protect soft tissues, provide attachments for muscles, produce blood cells, store inorganic salts Muscular Muscles Cause movements, maintain posture, produce body heat Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense organs Detect changes, receive and interpret sensory information, stimulate muscles and glands Endocrine Glands that secrete hormones (pituitary gland, thyroid gland, Control metabolic activities of body structures parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland, and thymus) Cardiovascular Heart, arteries, capillaries, veins Move blood through blood vessels and transport substances throughout body Lymphatic Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen Return tissue fluid to the blood, carry certain absorbed food molecules, defend the body against infection Digestive Mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, Receive, break down, and absorb food; eliminate unabsorbed stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small and large intestines material Respiratory Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs Intake and output of air, exchange of gases between air and blood Urinary Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra Remove wastes from blood, maintain water and electrolyte balance, store and eliminate urine Reproductive Male: scrotum, testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal Produce and maintain sperm cells, transfer sperm cells into vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, urethra, penis; female reproductive tract; Produce and maintain egg cells, Female: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, vulva receive sperm cells, support development of an embryo, and function in birth process Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 37 1.7 Lifespan Changes Aging occurs from the microscopic to the whole-body level. These are some of the changes that occur with aging: Hair loses pigment, becomes gray or white Skin wrinkles due to decrease in subcutaneous fat Skin stiffens due to decrease in collagen and elastin Percentage of fats in the tissues increases Joints develop stiffness Elevated blood pressure may progress to hypertension Elevated blood glucose may progress to type 2 diabetes mellitus Tissues atrophy and organs shrink Cells reach end of ability to undergo cell division, as they lose tips of chromosomes Metabolic rate decreases Decreased production of enzymes and other proteins Some will develop dementia/Alzheimer disease Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 38 1.8 Anatomical Terminology Anatomical Position: Standing erect, facing forward, upper limbs at the sides, palms facing forward Anatomical terms of relative position are based on a person standing in anatomical position. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 39 Figure 1.20 Anatomical Position Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 40 Terms of Relative Position Superior (above) / Inferior (below) Anterior or ventral (toward the front) / Posterior or dorsal (toward the back) Medial (toward the midline) / Lateral (away from midline) Bilateral (paired structures; on both sides) Ipsilateral (same side) / Contralateral (opposite sides) Proximal (close to point of attachment to trunk) / Distal (farther from point of attachment to trunk) Superficial (close to body surface) / Deep (more internal) Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 41 Figure 1.21 Terms of Relative Position Aaron Roeth Photography Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 42 Body Sections or Planes Sagittal section: longitudinal cut that divides body into left and right portions Mid-sagittal/Median section: divides body into equal left and right portions Parasagittal section: sagittal section lateral to midline; divides body into unequal left and right portions Transverse or Horizontal section: divides body into superior and inferior portions Coronal or Frontal section: longitudinal cut that divides body into anterior and posterior portions Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 43 Figure 1.22 Body Sections (top right, middle right): ©Karl Rubin/McGraw-Hill Education; (bottom right): Living Art Enterprises/Science Source; (left): © McGraw-Hill Education/Eric Wise Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 44 Figure 1.23 Sections of the Brain (a): ©Biophoto Associates/Science Source; (b): Patrick J. Lynch/Science Source; (c): ©Arthur Glauberman/Science Source Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 45 Sections of Cylindrical Organs Cross section: A cut across the structure Oblique section: An angular cut Longitudinal section: A lengthwise cut Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 46 Figure 1.24 Sections of Cylindrical Organs Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 47 End of Main Content Because learning changes everything. ® www.mheducation.com Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.