Effective Teaching Methods PDF

Effective Teaching Methods Research-Based Practice N i nt h Edi t io n maaf jika anda ingin full kirim vulsa Rp.50.000 ke 087771519313 Gary D. Borich The Univers...

Effective Teaching Methods Research-Based Practice N i nt h Edi t io n maaf jika anda ingin full kirim vulsa Rp.50.000 ke 087771519313 Gary D. Borich The University of Texas at Austin Boston  Columbus  Indianapolis  New York  San Francisco Amsterdam  Cape Town  Dubai  London  Madrid  Milan  Munich  Paris  Montreal  Toronto Delhi  Mexico City  São Paulo  Sydney  Hong Kong  Seoul  Singapore  Taipei  Tokyo Vice President/Editorial Director: Jeffery Johnston Executive Editor: Meredith D. Fossel Senior Development Editor: Max Effenson Chuck Editorial Assistant: Maria Feliberty Executive Marketing Managers: Krista Clark, Chris Barry Program Manager: Miryam Chandler Project Manager: Karen Mason Production Coordination, Editorial Services, Text Design, Art Rendering and Electronic Page Makeup: Lumina Datamatics Inc. Rights and Permissions Project Manager: Tania Zamora Cover Designer: Diane Lorenzo Cover Photos: Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock Acknowledgements of third party content appear on the page with the material, which constitutes an extension of this copyright page. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. This digital publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise except as authorized for use under the product subscription through which this digital application is accessed. For information regarding permissions, request forms and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions Department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/. Many of the designations by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those d­ esignations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. InTASC standards. Used with permission from Council of Chief State School Officers. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Borich, Gary D. Effective teaching methods : research-based practice / Gary D. Borich, The University of Texas at Austin. — Ninth edition.   pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-13-405625-8 (alk. paper) — ISBN 0-13-405625-6 (alk. paper) 1. Effective teaching—United States. 2. Lesson planning—United States. I. Title. LB1025.3.B67 2017 371.102—dc23 2015034036 PRINT LLV: ISBN 10: 0-13-405625-6 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-405625-8 ETEXT: ISBN 10: 0-13-405612-4 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-405612-8 ETEXT PLUS LLV: ISBN 10: 0-13-405487-3 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-405487-2  About the Author Gary Borich grew up on the south side of Chicago, where he attended Mendel High School and later taught in the public school system of Niles, Illinois. He received his doctoral degree from Indiana University, where he was director of evaluation at the Institute for Child Study. Dr. Borich is a professor in the College of Education at the University of Texas at Austin and a past member of the board of examiners of the National Council for the ­Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE). Dr. Borich’s other books include Observation Skills for Effective Teaching, seventh edition; Educational Assess- ment for the Elementary and Middle School Classroom, second edition (with M. Tombari); Clearly Outstanding: Making Each Day Count in Your Classroom; Becoming a Teacher: An Inquiring Dialogue for the Beginning Teacher; Educational Psychology: A Contemporary Approach, second edition (with M. Tombari); Educational Testing and Measurement, tenth edition (with T. Kubiszyn); The Appraisal of Teaching: Concepts and Process; and Teacher Behavior and Pupil Self Concept (with M. Kash). Dr. Borich lives in Austin, Texas, with his wife, Kathy. His interests include training and riding Arabian horses and he is the author of An Illustrated Introduction to Classical Horsemanship. iii  Brief Contents 1 The Effective Teacher 1 2 Understanding Your Students 34 3 Classroom Management I: Establishing the Learning Climate 67 4 Classroom Management II: Promoting Student Engagement 100 5 Goals, Standards, and Objectives 127 6 Unit and Lesson Planning 157 7 Technology Integration in Instruction 198 8 Questioning Strategies 221 9 Teaching Strategies for Direct Instruction 250 10 Teaching Strategies for Indirect Instruction 282 11 Self-Directed and Constructivist Learning 318 12 Cooperative Learning and the Collaborative Process 350 13 Assessing Learners 374 iv  Contents Preface xxi 1 The Effective Teacher 1 Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock What Is an Effective Teacher? 3 A New Direction 3 Key Behaviors Contributing to Effective Teaching 7 Lesson Clarity 7 Instructional Variety 8 Teacher Task Orientation 9 Engagement in the Learning Process 10 Student Success Rate 12 Summary of Five Key Behaviors 14 Helping Behaviors Related to Effective Teaching 14 Using Student Ideas and Contributions 14 Structuring Lesson Content 15 Questioning 16 In Practice: Focus on Constructivism 18 Probing 19 Teacher Affect 20 Effectively Teaching Learners at all Socioeconomic Levels 21 The Complexity of Teaching: Drawing on 30 Years of Professional Teaching Standards 22 Professional Teaching Standards 23 Your Transition to the Real World of Teaching 26 For Futher Information 28 Case History 28 Summing Up 29 Key Terms 30 Discussion and Practice Questions 30 Professional Practice 32 v vi  Contents 2 Understanding Your Students 34 Not All Learners Are Alike 36 Adaptive Teaching 37 Rob Marmion/Shutterstock Differentiated Instruction 38 The Effects of General Ability on Learning 39 Misconceptions about Intelligence 40 General versus Specific Abilities 40 The Effects of Specific Abilities on Learning 41 Multiple Intelligences 41 Social-Emotional Intelligence 43 In Practice: Focus on Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 43 Characteristics of Intelligence That You Can Teach, Encourage, and Nurture in Your Classroom 45 The Effects of Culture, Socioeconomic Status, and Language Proficiency on Learning 46 The Effects of Culture on Learning 46 The Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Learning 47 The Effects of Language Proficiency on Learning 48 The Effects of Personality and Learning Style on Learning 50 Erikson’s Crises of the School Years 50 Learning Style 52 Cultural Differences in Learning Styles: Some Cautions 53 The Effects of the Peer Group on Learning 54 The Effects of Home Life and Social Context on Learning 55 Your Role in Improving the Academic Success of All Learners 59 The Teacher and Cultural, Linguistic, and Socioeconomic Bias in the Classroom 60 A Final Word 61 Case History 62 Summing Up 63 Key Terms 64 Discussion and Practice Questions 65 Professional Practice 65 3 Classroom Management I: Establishing the Learning Climate 67 Connecting with Students 69 Jasmin Merdan/Fotolia Mutual Trust and Confidence 69 Unconditional Acceptance of Every Learner’s Potential to Learn 69 Opportunity for Exploration and Discovery 70 Earning Trust and Becoming a Leader the Old-Fashioned Way 70  Contents  vii Expert Leadership 70 Referent Leadership 71 Legitimate Leadership 71 Reward Leadership 71 Stages of Group Development 72 Stage 1: Forming 72 Stage 2: Storming 73 Stage 3: Norming 74 Stage 4: Performing 75 In Practice: Focus on a Democratic Approach to Classroom Management 76 Establishing an Effective Classroom Climate 77 The Social Environment 78 The Organizational Environment 79 Establishing Rules and Procedures 81 Problem Areas in Classroom Management 84 Monitoring Students 84 Making Transitions 85 Giving Assignments 86 Bringing Closure 87 Culturally Responsive Classroom Management 89 Planning Your First Day 92 Before the Bell 92 Introducing Yourself 92 Preparing an Introductory Activity 93 Rules and Expectations 93 Introducing Your Subject 93 Closure 94 Making Your Classroom and School a Professional Learning Community 94 Case History 95 Summing Up 96 Key Terms 98 Discussion and Practice Questions 98 Professional Practice 99 4 Classroom Management II: Promoting Student Engagement 100 KidStock/Blend Images/Getty Images The Humanist Tradition in Classroom Management 102 Congruent Communication 103 Cooperative Learning 104 The Applied Behavior Analysis Tradition in Classroom Management 105 Behavior Modification 105 Positive Behavioral Intervention in Schools (PBIS) 107 The Classroom Management Tradition 107 viii  Contents An Integrated Approach to Classroom Management 109 Low-Profile Classroom Management 109 Dealing with Persistent Disruptive Behavior 112 Responding to Misbehavior 112 Rewards and Reinforcement 114 Incentives versus Punishment 115 The Influence of Home and Family on Classroom Behavior 116 Establishing the Need for a Teacher– Family Conference 117 Preparing for the Teacher– Family Conference 117 Conducting the Teacher–Family Conference 118 Evaluating the Teacher–Family Conference 119 In Practice: Focus on Getting Parents Involved 119 Some Teacher–Family Conference Topics: Be Prepared 120 Academic and Social/Behavioral Problems 120 Child Neglect or Abuse 121 Bullying 121 School Crises 121 Culturally Responsive Classroom Management 122 Case History 123 Summing Up 124 Key Terms 125 Discussion and Practice Questions 125 Professional Practice 126 5 Goals, Standards, and Objectives 127 Goals, Standards, and Objectives 129 Tyler’s Goal Development Approach 129 The Origin of Educational Standards 130 Examples of Curriculum Standards and Essential Skills 132 Common Core State Standards 133 Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock Frames of Understanding 134 The Purpose of Objectives 134 What Does Behavioral Mean? 134 Steps in Preparing Behavioral Objectives 134 Specifying the Learning Outcomes 134 Identifying the Conditions 136 Stating Criterion Levels 137 Keeping Objectives Simple 139 The Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor Domains 140 The Cognitive Domain 140 In Practice: Focus on the New Field of Cognitive Science 144 The Affective Domain 145 The Psychomotor Domain 147  Contents  ix The Rigor and Relevance Framework 149 Some Misunderstandings about Behavioral Objectives 150 Are Some Behaviors More Desirable Than Others? 150 What is an Authentic Behavior? 150 Are Less Complex Behaviors Easier to Teach? 151 Are Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor Behaviors Mutually Exclusive? 151 The Cultural Roots of Objectives 152 Case History 152 Summing Up 153 Key Terms 154 Discussion and Practice Questions 155 Professional Practice 156 6 Unit and Lesson Planning 157 Teacher as Decision Maker 159 Knowledge of Instructional Goals and Objectives 159 Michaeljung/Fotolia Knowledge of Learners 159 Knowledge of Subject Matter 159 Knowledge of Teaching Methods 159 Pedagogical Content Knowledge 160 Reflective Practice and Tacit Knowledge 160 Unit and Lesson Plans 161 The System Perspective 161 Making Planning Decisions 161 Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Unit Planning 164 Disciplinary (Vertical) Unit Plans 165 Interdisciplinary (Lateral) Unit Plans 168 Making Lesson Plans 174 In Practice: Focus on Interdisciplinary Lesson Planning 175 Determining Where to Start 176 Providing for Learning Diversity 177 Events of Instruction 179 Getting Started: Some Lesson-Planning Questions 179 1. Gaining Attention (Anticipatory Set) 180 2. Informing Learners of the Objective (Anticipatory Set, Objectives, and Purpose) 181 3. Stimulating Recall of Prerequisite Learning (Review) 182 4. Presenting the Content (Input, Modeling) 183 5. Eliciting the Desired Behavior (Checking for Understanding, Guided Practice) 184 6. Providing Feedback (Guided Practice, Closure) 185 7. Assessing the Lesson Outcome (Independent Practice) 185 Example Lesson Plans 186 Case History 194 Summing Up 195 x  Contents Key Terms 196 Discussion and Practice Questions 196 Professional Practice 197 7 Technology Integration in Instruction 198 Why Teach with Technology? 200 What Technologies Can I Use to Improve My Teaching Robert Kneschke/Fotolia  Effectiveness? 202 Web 2.0 Technologies 202 Web 2.0 Technologies that Promote Knowledge Construction 203 Virtual Worlds 205 Web 2.0 Technologies that Promote Knowledge Organization 205 In Practice: Focus on Digital Gaming in the Classroom 206 Social Presentation 208 Course Management Technologies 208 In Practice: Focus on Applications of Online Learning 209 Phones 212 How Can I Integrate These Technologies Into My Instruction? 212 Gaining Attention (Anticipatory Set) with the IWB 213 Informing Learners of the Objective (Anticipatory Set, Objectives, Purpose) 214 Stimulating Recall of Prerequisite Learning (Review) 214 Presenting the Content (Input, Modeling) 214 Eliciting the Desired Behavior (Checking for Understanding, Guided Practice) 215 Providing Feedback (Guided Practice, Closure) 215 Assessing the Lesson Outcome (Independent Practice) 216 Assessing the Effectiveness of Technology Integration 216 Case History 217 Summing Up 218 Key Terms 219 Discussion and Practice Questions 219 Professional Practice 219 8 Questioning Strategies 221 Ann Cromack/Ikat Design/Pearson Education What Is a Question? 223 What Consumes 80 Percent of Class Time? 223 Are We Asking the Right Questions? 224 What Are the Purposes of Questions? 224 What Are Convergent and Divergent Questions? 225 What Does Research Say about Asking Convergent and Divergent Questions? 225 Who Are the Targets of Questions? 226 What Sequences of Questions Are Used? 227  Contents  xi What Levels of Questions Are Used? 228 Knowledge 229 Comprehension 230 Application 230 Analysis 231 Synthesis 232 Evaluation 233 Summary of Question Types 234 What Is a Probe? 234 How Should Wait Time Be Used? 236 In Practice: Focus on Effective Classroom Questioning 238 What Is Culturally Responsive Questioning? 239 Wait Time 239 Rhythm 240 Participation Structure 240 Language 240 What Are Common Problems in Using Questions? 241 Do You Use Complex, Ambiguous, or Double Questions? 241 Do You Accept Only the Answers You Expect? 242 Why Are You Asking This Question? 243 Do You Answer the Question Yourself? 244 Do You Use Questions as Punishment? 244 Case History 245 Summing Up 246 Key Terms 248 Discussion and Practice Questions 248 Professional Practice 248 9 Teaching Strategies for Direct Instruction 250 Krivosheev Vitaly/Shutterstock Categories of Teaching and Learning 252 Introduction to Direct Instruction Strategies 255 When Is Direct Instruction Appropriate? 258 An Example of Direct Instruction 259 In Practice: Focus on Mastery Learning 259 Direct Instruction Strategies 262 Monitoring and Diagnosing to Gauge Progress 262 Presenting and Structuring 263 Guided Student Practice 266 Feedback and Correcting Errors 269 Reaching Mastery 271 Review Over Time 273 Other Forms of Direct Instruction 275 Culturally Responsive Direct Instruction 276 Case History 277 xii  Contents Summing Up 278 Key Terms 279 Discussion and Practice Questions 279 Professional Practice 280 10 Teaching Strategies for Indirect Instruction 282 The Cognitive Processes of Learning 287 © Monkey Business/Fotolia Reading 288 Writing 289 Mathematics and Science 289 Social Studies 289 Comparing Direct and Indirect Instruction 290 Teaching Strategies for Indirect and Constructivist Instruction 291 An Example of Indirect Instruction 292 Content Organization 295 Concept Learning 297 Inquiry Learning 298 Problem-Centered Learning 299 In Practice: Focus on Inquiry Learning 300 Conceptual Movement: Induction and Deduction 302 Applying Induction and Deduction 304 Using Examples and Nonexamples 304 Using Questions 305 Learner Experience and Use of Student Ideas 307 The Changing View 307 Using Student Ideas Productively 307 Student Self-Evaluation 308 Use of Group Discussion 308 Culturally Responsive Indirect Instruction 312 Case History 313 Summing Up 314 Key Terms 315 Discussion and Practice Questions 315 Professional Practice 317 11 Self-Directed and Constructivist Learning 318 Self-Directed Learning 320 2xSamara.com/Shutterstock In Practice: Focus on Deep Learning and the Constructivist Approach 322 Metacognition 324 Teacher Mediation 325  Contents  xiii The Zone of Maximum Response Opportunity 326 Hitting the Zone of Maximum Response Opportunity 327 Functional Errors 328 Reciprocal Teaching 329 The Social Dialogue of the Classroom 332 The Role of Inner Speech 332 Sample Dialogues of Self-Directed Learning 333 Steps in Teaching Self-Directed Inquiry 337 Teaching Cognitive Strategies for Lifelong Learning 337 Elaboration/Organization 337 Comprehension Monitoring 338 Problem-Solving Strategies 338 Project-Based Learning Strategies 341 The Role of Tasks in Project-Based Learning 341 The Role of the Learner in Project-Based Learning 342 The Role of the Teacher in Project-Based Learning 342 In Practice: Focus on Project-Based Learning 342 Culturally Responsive Self-Directed Learning 344 Case History  345 Summing Up 346 Key Terms 348 Discussion and Practice Questions 348 Professional Practice 349 12 Cooperative Learning and the Collaborative Process 350 Outcomes of Cooperation 352 Attitudes and Values 352 Prosocial Behavior 352 Eléonore H/Fotolia Alternative Perspectives and Viewpoints 352 Integrated Identity 352 Higher Thought Processes 353 Components of a Cooperative Learning Activity 354 Teacher–Student Interaction 354 Student–Student Interaction 354 Task Specialization and Materials 354 Role Expectations and Responsibilities 355 Establishing a Cooperative Task Structure in Your Classroom 355 1. Specifying the Goal 355 2. Structuring the Task 356 3. Teaching and Evaluating the Collaborative Process 361 In Practice: Focus on Cooperative Learning 363 4. Monitoring Group Performance 364 5. Debriefing 364 xiv  Contents Team-Oriented Cooperative Learning Activities 366 Student Teams–Achievement Division (STAD) 366 Teams–Games–Tournaments 367 Jigsaw II 367 Team-Assisted Individualization 367 Overview of Team-Oriented Cooperative Learning Activities 368 Culturally Responsive Cooperative Learning 369 Case History  370 Summing Up 371 Key Terms 372 Discussion and Practice Questions 372 Professional Practice 373 13 Assessing Learners 374 Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests 376 Criterion-Referenced Tests 378 Lisa F. Young/Fotolia Norm-Referenced Tests 378 The Test Blueprint 378 Objective Test Items 379 True/False Items 379 Matching Items 380 Multiple-Choice Items 382 Higher Level Multiple-Choice Questions 383 Completion Items 386 Advantages and Disadvantages of Objective-Item Formats 386 Essay Test Items 386 Extended-Response Questions 388 Restricted-Response Questions 388 When Should You Use Essay Questions? 389 Some Criteria for Scoring Essay Items 390 Validity and Reliability 392 Types of Validity 392 Types of Reliability 393 Marks and Grading Systems 394 Comparison with Other Students 394 Comparison with Established Standards 394 Comparison with Aptitude 395 Comparison of Achievement with Effort 395 Comparison of Achievement with Improvement 395 Standardized Tests 396 Formative versus Summative Evaluation 396 Helping Students Prepare for Standardized Tests 398 Performance Assessment 399  Contents  xv In Practice: Focus on Performance Assessment 400 The Portfolio 401 Rationale for the Portfolio 401 Building a Portfolio 403 Portfolio Assessment and Report Card Grades 405 Plan a Portfolio Conference 405 Assessing the Academic Progress of Special Learners in the Regular Classroom 409 Race to the TOP: The Transition from the No Child Left Behind Act 410 The 2004 Reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act 411 Response to Intervention (RTI) 413 Case History  415 Summing Up 416 Key Terms 417 Discussion and Practice Questions 418 Professional Practice 418 Appendix A Teacher Concerns Checklist 421 Appendix B Answers to Chapter Questions and Activities 423 Appendix C Higher Order Thinking and Problem-Solving Checklist 430 Glossary 434 References 441 Name Index 450 Subject Index 453  Preface Common Core curriculum standards, differentiated instruction, new educational technologies, special populations in the general education classroom, cognitive and academic language proficiency, and new legislative initiatives, such as Race to the Top and Response to Intervention, are but a few of the developments that continue to change the face of classroom teaching. This book has been written to help you prepare to meet these challenges and to discover the opportunities for professional growth and advancement they provide. This ninth edition of Effective Teaching Methods: Research-based Practice continues to strengthen the four goals of previous editions, which are as follows: To present teaching practices derived from the newest classroom research selected for their ef- fectiveness with learners. The results have made it possible to replace many age-old anecdotal suggestions for good teaching with modern-day research-based teaching practices that are em- pirically related to positive outcomes in learners. Describing these teaching practices and how to use them in your classroom to become an effective teacher is a major focus of this book. To describe these effective teaching practices in a friendly, conversational manner. The lan- guage of classrooms is informal, and there is no reason a book about teachers in classrooms should not use the same language. Therefore, this book talks straight, avoiding complicated prescriptions, rambling discussions, or pseudo-scholarly language. The intent is to get the point across quickly and in a user-friendly style so that you can immediately apply what is presented in the classroom. To be practical. Positive prescriptions for your classroom teaching show you how to engage students in the learning process, manage your classroom, and increase student achievement in today’s diverse classrooms. This book tells you what to do to obtain these results in a succinct and orderly fashion with extensive examples from classroom videos, written class- room dialogues, and case studies. To be realistic. Some of the literature on effective teaching is theoretical and speculative. This book describes what the research says teachers do in real classrooms to be effective and identi- fies the teaching practices they have found to be effective. Nothing in this book is pie-in-the-sky theorizing about effective teaching, because most of what is presented results directly from years of research and observation of effective teaching practices in actual classrooms. These, then, are this book’s four goals: to illustrate how to apply effective, research-based teaching practices, presented in a conversational style, that are practical and realistic in today’s diverse classrooms. New to This Edition Users of earlier editions of Effective Teaching Methods will notice that each chapter has been revised. The rapid pace of change and new research occurring in nearly every aspect of teaching has resulted in a ninth edition that considerably updates and extends earlier editions and provides an extensive complement of features to get beginning teachers confident and up to speed on their very first day of classroom observation and practice teaching. xvi  Preface  xvii These updates include new content and applications that: Extend the Common Core Standards and their application in the classroom. These updates discuss research-based strategies, methods, and practices used by effective teachers that can help you achieve these standards. (Chapter 5) Add Learning Outcomes that frame the content of the chapters and tie to each major s­ ection, and then summary statements at the end of the chapter. Explain and provide strategies for learners who are at risk of school failure because of their cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP). When these learning strategies are not provided, the result can be performance below the learner’s potential beginning a cycle of deficiencies that promote poor self-concept, misbehavior, and disinterest in school, contrib- uting to a high drop-out rate. (Chapter 3) Provide strategies for contributing to the Positive Behavior Intervention in Schools (PBIS) program in your school. Students who engage in problem behaviors, such as disruption, noncompliance, and aggression, continue to challenge teachers. This new addition provides you with specific steps for improving a learner’s behavior consistent with this nationally recognized applied behavior intervention plan. (Chapter 4) Present a practical step-by-step account of the ongoing transition from No Child Left ­Behind (NCLB) to Race to the Top (RTT) that will affect your teaching and your learners. This update maps the transition from No Child Left Behind legislation to new mandates to evaluate the academic performance and contribute to the progress of every child with a ­disability in the general curriculum. (Chapter 13) Illustrate the Gradual Release of Responsibility Concept with several practical examples that apply the five steps of Monitoring and Diagnosing, Presenting and Structuring, Guided Student Practice, Feedback and Corrections, and Reaching Mastery. These steps allow a shift from the teacher assuming all the responsibility for presenting content to students ­increasingly accepting responsibility for their own learning, ending in a content mastery stage. (Chapter 9) Add practical examples with lesson scenarios of the use of technology-embedded lesson planning. This update begins with introducing the importance and application of technology in lesson planning (Chapter 5), situating them within the context of goals, standards, and objectives; and then applying them with practical real world lesson applications (Chapter 7). Provide extended examples of constructivist in theory and practice. Examples and s­ cenarios soundly illustrate that when learners create new rules and hypotheses on their own to ex- plain what is being observed and arrive at new meanings and understandings in nests of wider and wider embrace they add wholeness and meaning to what they are learning, called “deep learning.” (Chapter 10) Along with these new additions we have retained and updated: Upfront chapters emphasizing the importance of classroom management (Chapters 3 & 4). A section on Connecting with Students (Chapter 3), including the importance of developing mutual trust and confidence between teacher and learner and the classroom and school in a Professional Learning Community. Expanded information on working with families in Chapter 4, including the influence of home and family on students and classroom behavior as well as preparing for, conducting, and evaluating the Teacher-Family conference. Provide helpful tips on the formative assessment of direct, indirect, constructivist, and ­collaborative learning. xviii  Preface e-Text Enhancements This book is available as an enhanced Pearson e-text* with the following features: Video Margin Notes are available throughout the ninth edition. Two to three videos are included in most chapters. In these videos, students will listen to experts, watch footage of diverse classrooms, and listen to and watch effective teachers talk about and practice strate- gies that promote learning. Videos are accompanied by reflective questions. Final Chapter Quizzes align with learning outcomes and appear as a link at the end of each chapter in the e-text edition. Using multiple choice questions, the quizzes allow readers to test their knowledge of the concepts, research, strategies, and practices discussed in each section. Case History Questions with Feedback are provided at the end of each Case History to help students with licensure preparation. *These features are only available in the Pearson eText, available exclusively from www. pearsonhighered.com/etextbooks or buy ordering the Pearson eText plus Loose-Leaf Version (ISBN 0134054873) or the Pearson eText Access Code Card (ISBN 0134056175). How This Book Is Organized Chapter 1 introduces the characteristics of an effective teacher and what an effective teacher does in the classroom. This chapter also acquaints you with the NBPTS and I­ nTASC stan- dards that will be important for your certification and licensing. Chapter 2 provides a discussion on understanding adaptive teaching, differentiated instruc- tion, and how individual differences and learner diversity (prior achievement, learning style, culture and language, and home and family life) affect student learning needs and classroom management. This chapter will introduce you to the real nature and challenges of today’s multicultural, diverse classrooms and the teaching of English language learners, immigrant populations, at-risk learners, and special-needs learners, including how to close the achieve- ment gap among students of different socioeconomic levels. Chapters 3 and 4 delve into classroom management and provide a complement of tech- niques and strategies that can quickly change your beginning days in the classroom from a concern for your own survival to a concern for the impact you are having on your learners. Chapter 5 on goals, standards, and objectives shows you how to assess the extent to which you are achieving knowledge, thinking, and problem-solving behaviors in your classroom. This chapter expands the traditional taxonomies of cognitive and affective behavior to in- clude the important higher-order objectives of metacognition, problem solving, decision making, critical thinking, and valuing. It also makes clear the relationship between state and common core standards and your classroom goals and objectives. Chapter 6 on unit and lesson planning will improve your skills in linking subject-matter con- tent to teaching methods and student outcomes in a continuous process of lesson ­planning. The chapter shows you how to compose thematic and interdisciplinary lessons to promote higher order thought processes and problem-solving behavior in your learners. It also provides some of the tools you can use to differentiate your instruction in a diverse classroom. Chapter 7, a newly revised chapter, illustrates with practical examples opportunities you have to infuse your lesson plans with technology for greater learning. It describes how to effectively integrate educational and web-based instructional technologies into your lesson plans. Updated chapter graphics show you how online resources can be seamlessly inte- grated into every step of the lesson planning process. With the many examples provided for integrating technology into your lesson planning you should be well informed in using a wide variety of online tools and resources to enrich and add an exciting constructivist addi- tion to your lessons as presented in the following chapters.  Preface  xix Chapter 8 on teacher questioning shows you how to raise questions at different levels of cognitive complexity and how to use probes and follow-up questions to promote higher order thinking and problem-solving behavior. This chapter will help you ask questions that prepare your learners not only to engage in quick, firm, and correct responses during direct instruction but also to ask and respond to higher order questions during indirect and self- directed learning. Chapters 9 and 10 provide you with an interchangeable menu of instructional activities that can be mixed and matched to the needs of your learners and objectives to help you better implement the goals of differentiating instruction in a diverse classroom. Chapter 9 offers teaching strategies that explain how to use direct instructional methods (such as ­explaining, presenting, drill and practice, and recitation), while Chapter 10 explores indirect instructional methods (group discussion, concept-learning, inquiry, and problem-solving ­activities). Chapter 11 focuses on self-directed and constructivist learning and how to use metacogni- tive techniques, teacher mediation, and the social dialogue of the classroom to help learners control, regulate, and take responsibility for their own learning. You will learn to unleash your learners’ intuitive and imaginative capacities to learn on their own, with you as a ­resource, leaving them with a sense of ownership in what they have explored and discov- ered. This chapter offers specific tools and techniques that effective teachers use to get their students to become agents of their own learning. Chapter 12 discusses cooperative learning and the collaborative process for productively organizing and managing group and team activities to promote communication skills, self-esteem, and problem solving. It will introduce you to the enthusiasm, motivation, and creativity that can result from learners working together on real-world projects and perfor- mances to form a partnership of ideas and a learning community, and how to teach your stu- dents the democratic and collaborative skills they will need in and beyond your classroom. Chapter 13 offers an updated and expanded treatment of criterion and standardized assess- ments of your students that includes what you will need to know to assess the learners with special needs in your classroom. No other development in education during the last decade has generated more controversy than the use of standardized tests for making high-stakes decisions involving grade promotion, the selection of students for advanced academic pro- grams, high school graduation, and assessing special populations, as called for by recently authorized and updated federal legislation. The chapter explores the assessment of student achievement and interpreting student progress using the Response to Intervention model and teacher-made objective tests, essays, performance assessments, and portfolios. This chapter will not only help you assess the day-to-day understanding of all learners, but it will help you bridge the gap between your learners’ daily performance and their standardized test results. The book Observation Skills for Effective Teaching: Research-based practice can serve as a companion volume or follow-up text to this edition. (Borich, G.2016. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis) Special Features of This Text Features that can be found in this ninth edition include: Learning Outcomes and InTASC standards focus you on the key aspects of each chapter. In Practice features offer practical teaching tips, strategies, and techniques that can help new teachers extend their textbook knowledge to their very first lesson plans, showing them tangible approaches to putting theory into practice and offering practical tips, strategies, and techniques. They include how to apply constructivist principles, use differentiated instruc- tion, teach learners with special needs in a diverse classroom, integrate technology and web based instruction into lesson plans, apply the concept of multiple intelligences, write interdis- ciplinary unit plans, achieve mastery learning, initiate project- and problem-based learning, xx  Preface and use portfolios and performance assessments to provide learners an opportunity to par- ticipate in their own assessment. Many In Practice features appear in this edition, including Focus on Applications for Online Learning, Focus on Digital Gaming in the Classroom, and Focus on Cooperative Learning. A self-report survey instrument is included in Chapter 1 and Appendix A for measuring the concerns you have about yourself as a teacher, concerns about the teaching task, and concerns about your impact on students, which can be used to chart your growth and devel- opment as a teacher over time. A practical visual format is included in Chapter 4 for organizing your unit and lesson plans, letting you graphically visualize the relationship between lessons and units and better prepare for meeting state standards and preparing your learners for their standardized as- sessments. A Higher Order Thinking and Problem-Solving Checklist is introduced in Chapters 5, 11, and 12 and included in Appendix C to help you achieve a curriculum in your classroom that encourages your students to problem solve, make decisions, and think critically. End-of-chapter Practice OR End-of-chapter Application ❏ End-of-chapter Summing Up sections tie back to the learning outcomes and restate key concepts in an easy-to-follow format for easy reference during field experiences, obser- vation assignments, and practice teaching. Discussion and Practice Questions review the most important content of each chapter, with keyed answers presented in Appendix B. ❏ Professional Practice sections at the ends of chapters provide hands-on opportunities to engage you in decision making and problem solving as they are carried out in a real classroom. Together, all three sets of activities provide a menu of opportunities from which you can practice and advance the skills learned in each chapter. ❏ Field Experience and Practice Activities at the end of each chapter encourage you to make decisions and solve practical classroom problems related to the content within each chapter with regard to lesson planning, classroom management, cultural diversity, and project-based learning. ❏ Digital Portfolio Activities guide you in creating a professional portfolio of accomplish- ments with entries related to the content of each chapter. This portfolio will be a vehicle with which you can put your best foot forward to future instructors in your teacher prep- aration program, cooperating or supervisory teachers during student teaching, profes- sional colleagues, and, most importantly, future employers. The portfolio will chronicle your best accomplishments in this course and beyond. ❏ A glossary of key terms and definitions recaps all of the major definitions, concepts, and teaching practices that you will need to review for the Praxis exams and your state’s certification requirements. Support Materials for Instructors The following resources are available for instructors to download in the Educators section of the Pearson website. Instructors enter the author or title of this book, select this particular edition of the book, and then click on the “Resources” tab to log in and download textbook supplements. Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank (ISBN 0134056159) The Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank includes an overview of chapter content and related instructional activities for the college classroom and for practice in the field as well as a robust collection of chapter-by-chapter test items.  Preface  xxi PowerPoint™ Slides (ISBN 0134056299) The PowerPoint™ slides include key concept summarizations, diagrams, and other graphic aids to enhance learning. They are designed to help students understand, organize, and reinforce core concepts and theories. TestGen (ISBN 0134056167) TestGen is a powerful test generator that instructors install on a computer and use in conjunction with the TestGen testbank file for the text. Assessments, including equations, graphs, and scientific notation, may be created for both print or testing online. TestGen is available exclusively from Pearson Education publishers. Instructors install TestGen on a personal computer (Windows or Macintosh) and create tests for classroom testing and for other specialized delivery options, such as over a local area network or on the web. A test bank, which is also called a Test Item File (TIF), typically contains a large set of test items, organized by chapter and ready for use in creating a test, based on the associated textbook material. Acknowledgments Many individuals contributed to the preparation of this book. Not the least significant are the many professionals whose studies of classroom life have contributed to the effective teaching methods described in this text. I also extend my gratitude to Yungwei Hao and Martin Tombari for their contributions to Chapter 7, bringing the most recent state of the art technology to the lesson planning process. And, thanks to those educators who gave their time to review this ninth edition: Dr. Audrey W. Beard, Albany State University; Dr. Deborah L. Burris, Southern Illinois University Carbondale; Maria Del Carmen Tejeda-Delgado, Texas A&M – Corpus Christi; Karen Dunlap, Texas Woman’s University; and Dr. Christopher E. Smith, Augsburg College. I also wish to acknowledge those teachers who over the years have shared their insights about the teaching process with me. Among them have been teachers in the Austin, Texas, Independent School District—especially William B. Travis High School and Travis Heights Elementary School, who provided the opportunity to observe many of the effective teaching methods described herein. GDB Austin, Texas This page intentionally left blank  1 The Effective Teacher Learning Outcomes By the time you complete this chapter, you will know and be able to: Explain the role that research plays in demonstrating how teaching strategies and methods contribute to student performance. Examine key instructional behaviors that contribute to becoming an effective teacher. Compare and contrast the approaches you can use as an effective teacher and discuss the ways in which you can meet each learner’s diverse needs. Discuss the role that standards play in teaching and learning. Evaluate the factors that are critical to your transition into the real world of teaching. InTASC By the end of the chapter, you will be able to meet the following InTASC standards for effective teaching: STANDARD 1  Learner Development. The teacher of the discipline(s) he or she teaches and creates learn- ­understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing ing experiences that make these aspects of the discipline that patterns of learning and development vary individually ­accessible and meaningful for learners to assure mastery within and across the cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, of the content. and physical areas, and designs and implements develop- STANDARD 6  Assessment. The teacher understands and mentally appropriate and challenging learning experiences. uses multiple methods of assessment to engage learners STANDARD 4  Content Knowledge. The teacher under- in their own growth, to monitor learner progress, and to stands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures guide the teacher’s and learner’s decision making.  Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock H ow easily or quickly could you answer the question, “What is an effective teacher?” This question has been asked by every teacher, young and old. It is a deceptively simple question that has many different answers. Teaching is a complex and difficult task that demands extraordinary abilities. After decades of experience and research, one of the most important questions in education today still is, “What is an effective teacher?” This chapter offers no single definition of an effective teacher. Instead, its goal is to introduce you to practices used by effective teachers that are related to positive outcomes in learners. These effective teaching practices do not tell the whole story of what an effective teacher is, but they do form an important foundation to help you become an effective teacher and profit from reading the chapters ahead. Subsequent chapters blend these practices with classroom management, lesson planning, technology integration, problem-based and constructivist learning strategies, learner assessment, and the attitudes and dispositions you will need to build a warm and nurturing relationship with your students. These topics will give you a rich and comprehensive picture of an effective teacher and, most importantly, help you become one.  Chapter 1 The Effective Teacher  3 What Is an Effective Teacher? If you had grown up a century ago, you would have been able to answer the question “What is an effective teacher?” very simply: A good teacher is a good person—a role model who meets the community ideal for a good citizen, good parent, and good employee. At that time, teachers were judged primarily on their goodness as people and only secondarily on their behavior in the classroom. They were expected to be honest, hardworking, generous, friendly, and considerate and to demonstrate these qualities in their classrooms by being organized, disciplined, insight- ful, and committed. Practically speaking, this meant that to be effective all a teacher needed was King Solomon’s wisdom, Sigmund Freud’s insight, Albert Einstein’s knowledge, and Florence Nightingale’s dedication! It soon became evident that this definition of an ideal teacher lacked clear, objective ­s tandards of performance that could be consistently applied and that could be used to train future teachers. A New Direction Over the past several decades, a revolution has occurred in defining good teaching. We have seen that defining good teachers by community ideals proved unrealistic and that it was poorly related to what teachers actually do in the classroom. This directed researchers to study the impact of specific teacher activities on the specific cognitive and affective behaviors of their students. The term good teaching changed to effective teaching, and the research focus shifted from studying teachers exclu- sively to including teachers’ effects on students. These new ways of studying classroom behavior have made the teacher–student relationship in the classroom the focus of modern definitions of effective teaching. Linking Teacher Behavior with Student Performance. During the past few decades, researchers developed new methods for studying the classroom interaction patterns of teachers and students. Their goal was to discover which patterns of teacher behavior promote desirable student performance. But before unveiling the findings of this research and their implications for your teach- ing, let’s see how this research was performed. Patterns of Classroom Interaction. To collect data on the classroom interaction patterns of teachers and students, researchers often used instruments like those shown in Figures 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3. These particular instruments, devised by Good and Brophy (2007) for their research on effec- tive teaching, record patterns of student–teacher interaction. Using the coding guide in Figure 1.1 and the response form in Figure 1.2, an observer codes both student responses to questions and the teacher’s reaction and feedback. For example, in the tenth interchange recorded on Figure 1.2, a male student fails to answer a question (coded “0” under “Student Response”), is criticized by the teacher for not answering (“--”), and then is given the answer by the teacher (“Gives Ans.”). Numbers for the interchanges are assigned as they occur, allowing the pattern of question–answer– feedback to be recorded over an entire class period across many classrooms. On the Coding Form for Measuring Individual Praise (Figure 1.3), the observer codes the posi- tive behavior being praised by the teacher (perseverance, progress, success, good thinking, etc.). Individual students are identified by assigning each a unique number such as 14, 23, 6, and so on. This form records not only the praise behavior of the teacher in relation to individual student behav- ior but also the overall pattern or sequence of action. For example, student 23 is praised twice in a row, the first time for “Success” and the second time for “Good thinking.” With instruments such as these, a rich and varied picture of classroom activity can be captured over the course of a research study and related to various measures of school achievement. Obvi- ously, a single observation of a single class would provide too little data to reveal a consistent pattern of interaction. However, multiple observations extending across different days, teachers, 4  Chapter 1 The Effective Teacher Figure 1.1  Coding Categories for Question–Answer–Feedback Sequences Student Gender Definition Explanation Symbol Label M Male The student answering the question is male. F Female The student answering the question is female. Student Response + Right The teacher accepts the student’s response as correct or satisfactory. ± Part right The teacher considers the student’s response to be only partially correct or to be correct but incomplete. − Wrong The teacher considers the student’s response to be incorrect. 0 No answer The student makes no response or says he doesn’t know (code student’s answer here if teacher gives feedback reaction before he is able to respond). Teacher Feedback Reaction ++ Praise Teacher praises student either in words (“fine,” “good,” “wonderful,” “good thinking”) or by expressing verbal affirmation in a notably warm, joyous, or excited manner. + Affirm Teacher simply affirms that the student’s response is correct (nods, repeats answer, says “Yes,” “OK,” etc.). 0 No reaction Teacher makes no response whatever to student’s response—he or she simply goes on to something else. − Negate Teacher simply indicates that the student’s response is incorrect (shakes head, says “No,” “That’s not right,” “Hm-mm,” etc.). −− Criticize Teacher criticizes student, either in words (“You should know better than that,” “That doesn’t make any sense—you better pay close attention,” etc.) or by expressing verbal negation in a frustrated, angry, or disgusted manner. Gives Ans. Teacher gives answer Teacher provides the correct answer for the student. Ask Other Teacher asks another Teacher redirects the question, asking a different student to student try to answer it. Other Calls Another student calls out Another student calls out the correct answer, and the answer teacher acknowledges that it is correct. Repeat Repeats question Teacher repeats the original question, either in its entirety or with a prompt (“Well?” “Do you know?” “What’s the answer?”). Clue Rephrase or clue Teacher makes original question easier for student to answer by rephrasing it or by giving a clue. New Ques. New question Teacher asks a new question (i.e., a question that calls for a different answer than the original question called for). Source: Good, Thomas L., Looking in Classrooms, 5th ed., © 1990. Reprinted and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.  Chapter 1 The Effective Teacher  5 Figure 1.2  Coding Response Form Student Sex Response Teacher Feedback Reaction Stu. Gives Ask Other New No. M F + ± − 0 ++ + 0 − −− Ans. Other Calls Repeat Clue Ques. 1 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 2 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 3 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 4 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 5 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 6 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 7 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 8 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 9 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 10 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 11 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 12 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 13 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 14 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 15 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Source: Good, Thomas L., Looking in Classrooms, 5th ed., © 1990. Reprinted and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. or schools could reveal consistent patterns of teacher–student interactions. These patterns of class- room behavior then can be related to student outcomes—such as classroom quizzes, student proj- ects, oral performances, portfolio assessments, and standardized tests—to determine their effects on student performance. It was in this manner that patterns of effective teaching began to emerge in studies conducted by different researchers. As in all research, some studies provided contradictory results or found no relationships among certain types of classroom interactions and student outcomes. But many stud- ies found patterns of interaction between teacher and learner that consistently produced desirable student outcomes in the form of greater motivation to learn, higher achievement, increased problem solving, and improved learning skills. Now that you know how the research was conducted, let’s look at a preview of the teaching strategies and methods that researchers generally agree contribute to effective teaching and that will be addressed in the following chapters. 6  Chapter 1 The Effective Teacher Figure 1.3  Coding Form for Measuring Individual Praise USE: Whenever the teacher praises an individual student PURPOSE: To see what behaviors the teacher reinforces through praises, and to see how the teacher’s praise is distributed among the students. Behavior Categories Student Number Codes 1. Perseverance or effort; worked long or hard 14 3 1.      2. Progress (relative to the past) toward achievement 23 2.    3,4 3. Success (right answer, high score) achievement 6 3.     3 4. Good thinking, good suggestions, good guess, or nice try 18 3 4.      5. Imagination, creativity, originality 8 1 5.      6. Neatness, careful work 8 1 6.      7. Good or compliant behavior, follows rules, pays attention 8 1 7.      8. Thoughtfulness, courtesy, offering to share, prosocial behavior 8. 9. Other (specify) 9. NOTES: 10. All answers occurred during social 11. studies discussion. 12. Was particularly concerned about 13. #8, a low-performing learner. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Source: Good, Thomas L., Looking in Classrooms, 5th ed., © 1990. Reprinted and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.  Chapter 1 The Effective Teacher  7 Key Behaviors Contributing to Effective Teaching From this research, approximately ten teacher behaviors have been identified that show promising relationships to desirable student performance, primarily as measured by classroom assessments and standardized tests. Five of these behaviors have been consistently supported by research studies (Borich, 2015; Brophy, 2002; Brophy & Good, 1986; Emmer & Evertson, 2012; Herrell & Jordan, 2011; Marzano, 2012; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2004; McNary, Glasgow, & Hicks, 2005; McTighe & Wiggins, 2013; Saunders, 2005; Krechevsky, Mardell, Rivard, & Wilson 2013; Willis, 2006). Another five have had some support and appear logically related to effective teaching. The first five are called key behaviors, because they are considered essential for effective teaching. The second five are called helping behaviors, because they can be used in combinations to implement the key behaviors. Following are the five key behaviors essential for effective teaching: 1. Lesson clarity 2. Instructional variety 3. Teacher task orientation 4. Student engagement in the learning process 5. Student success rate Let’s take a closer look at each of these. Lesson Clarity Lesson clarity refers to how clear a teacher’s presentation is to the class, as indicated in the following points: More Effective Teachers Make ideas clear to learners who may be at different levels of understanding. Explain concepts in ways that help students follow along in a logical, step-by-step order. Have an oral delivery that is direct, audible to all students, and free of distracting mannerisms. Less Effective Teachers Use vague, ambiguous, or indefinite language, such as “might probably be,” “tends to suggest,” and “could possibly happen.” Use overly complicated sentences, such as “There are many important reasons for the start of World War II, but some are more important than others, so let’s start with those that are thought to be important, but really aren’t.” Give directions that often result in student requests for clarification. One result from research on lesson clarity is that teachers vary considerably in this behavior. Not all teachers are able to communicate clearly and directly to their students without wandering, speaking above students’ levels of comprehension, or using speech patterns that impair their presen- tation’s clarity (Brophy, 2002; Fasset & Warren, 2010; Muijs & Reynolds, 2005; Popham, 2009). If you teach with a high degree of clarity, you will spend less time going over material. Your questions will be answered correctly the first time, allowing more time for instruction. Clarity is a complex behavior because it is related to many other behaviors, such as your organization of the content, lesson familiarity, and delivery strategies (whether you use a discussion, recitation, ques- tion–and–answer, or small-group format). Research shows that both the cognitive and oral clarity of presentations vary substantially among teachers. This in turn produces differences in student per- formance on cognitive tests of achievement (Muijs & Reynolds, 2005). Table 1.1 summarizes some of the indicators of lesson clarity and teaching strategies you will learn about in this text, especially in Chapters 8 (on questioning strategies), 9 (on direct instruction), and 10 (on indirect instruction). 8  Chapter 1 The Effective Teacher Table 1.1 Indicators for Clarity Being Clear (An effective teacher...) Examples of Teaching Strategies 1. Informs learners of the lesson objective (e.g., describes Prepare a behavioral objective for the lesson at the desired what behaviors will be tested or required on future level of complexity (e.g., knowledge, comprehension, assignments as a result of the lesson) etc.). Indicate to learners at the start of the lesson in what ways the behavior will be used in the future. 2. Provides learners with an advance organizer (e.g., one Consult or prepare a unit plan to determine what task- that places the lesson in the perspective of past and/or relevant prior learning is required for this lesson and what future lessons) task-relevant prior learning this lesson represents for future lessons. Begin the lesson by informing the learner that the content to be taught is part of this larger context. 3. Checks for task-relevant prior learning at the beginning of Ask questions of students at the beginning of a lesson or the lesson (e.g., determines the level of understanding of check assignments regularly to determine if task-relevant prerequisite facts or concepts and reteaches if necessary) prior knowledge has been acquired. 4. Gives directives slowly and distinctly (e.g., repeats Organize procedures for lengthy assignments in step-by- directives when needed or divides them into smaller pieces) step order, and give them as a handout as well as orally. 5. Knows ability levels and teaches at or slightly above Determine learners’ ability level from standardized learners’ current level of understanding (e.g., knows tests, previous assignments, and interests, and retarget learners’ attention spans) instruction accordingly. 6. Uses examples, illustrations, and demonstrations to explain Restate main points in at least one modality other and clarify (e.g., uses visuals to help interpret and reinforce than the one in which students were initially taught main points) (e.g., visual vs. auditory). 7. Provides a review or summary at the end of each lesson Use key phrases, repetition, or easy to memorize symbols to help students efficiently store and later recall content. Instructional Variety The term instructional variety refers to your variability or flexibility of delivery during the presen- Observe the tation of a lesson (Brophy, 2002; Marzano, Pickering, & Heflebower, 2010; Marzano, 2009). One teacher in this of the most effective ways of creating variety during instruction is to ask questions. As you will video as she uses a learn in Chapter 8, many different types of questions can be integrated into the pacing and sequenc- supplemental reading ing of a lesson to create meaningful variation (Chuska, 2003; Falk & Blumenreich, 2005; Walsh & to provide instruction. Sattes, 2011). Therefore, the effective teacher needs to know the art of asking questions and how Notice how the teacher asks various to discriminate among different question formats—fact questions, process questions, convergent levels of questions questions, and divergent questions. These question types are introduced in Chapter 8 and expanded of students in her on in Chapter 10. small group. Another aspect of instructional variety in teaching is perhaps the most obvious: the use of supplemental learning materials, computer software, displays, the Internet, and space in your class- room. The physical texture and visual variety of your classroom can also contribute to instructional variety. This has been shown to influence students’ engagement, motivation to learn, and achieve- ment on end-of-unit tests and performance assessments (Walqui, 2000). For example, some studies found the amount of disruptive behavior to be less in classrooms that had more varied activities and materials (Emmer & Evertson, 2016; Evertson & Emmer, 2016). Others have shown variety to be related to student attention (Borich, 2004, 2008). Some ways to incorporate variety into your teaching are presented in Chapter 7 (on technol- ogy integration), Chapter 9 (on direct instruction), Chapter 10 (on indirect instruction), Chapter 11 (self-directed and constructivist learning strategies), and Chapter 12 (on cooperative learning and the collaborative process). Table 1.2 summarizes some of the indicators of instructional variety and teaching strategies covered in these chapters.  Chapter 1 The Effective Teacher  9 Table 1.2 Indicators for Variety Using Variety (An effective teacher...) Examples of Teaching Strategies 1. Uses attention -gaining devices (e.g., begins with a Begin the lesson with an activity in a modality that is challenging question, visual, or example) different from the last lesson or activity (e.g., change from listening to seeing). 2. Shows enthusiasm and animation through variation in Change position at regular intervals (e.g., every ten eye contact, voice, and gestures (e.g., changes pitch and minutes). Change speed or volume to indicate that a volume, moves about during the transition to a new activity) change in content or activity has occurred. 3. Varies modes of presentation (e.g., presents, asks Establish an order of daily activities that rotates cycles of questions, then provides for independent practice [daily]) seeing, listening, and doing. 4. Uses a mix of rewards and reinforcers (e.g., extra credit, Establish lists of rewards and expressions of verbal verbal praise, independent study, etc. [weekly, monthly]) praise, and choose among them randomly. Provide reasons for praise along with the expression of it. 5. Incorporates student ideas or participation in some aspects Occasionally plan instruction in which student opinions of instruction (e.g., uses indirect instruction or divergent are used to begin the lesson (e.g., “What would you questioning [weekly, monthly]) do if...”). 6. Varies types of questions (e.g., divergent, convergent, Match questions to the behavior and complexity of [weekly]) and probes (e.g., to clarify, to solicit, to the lesson objective. Vary the complexity of the lesson redirect [daily]) objectives in accord with the unit plan. Table 1.3 Learning Time and Student Achievement: Example from Second-Grade Reading Reading Score at First Student Engaged Time in Reading Estimated Reading Score, Second Testing (October) with High Success Rate Testing (December) Total Time Raw Score over 5 Weeks Average Daily Raw Score (out of 100) Percentile (Minutes) Time (Minutes) (out of 100) Percentile 36 50 100 4 37 39 36 50 573 23 43 50 36 50 1,300 52 52 66 Note: An average of 25 school days occurred between the first and second testing. Source: Based on Teaching and Learning in the Elementary School: A Summary of the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study, Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study Report VII-I, by Charles W. Fisher et al., 1978. San Francisco: Far West Laboratory for Research and Development. Teacher Task Orientation Teacher task orientation is a key behavior that refers to the amount of classroom time the teacher devotes to teaching an academic subject. The more time allocated to teaching a specific topic, the greater the opportunity students have to learn. For example, Table 1.3 shows the results achieved in a second-grade reading classroom when the teacher’s task orientation—or time teaching an academic subject—was increased over a five- week period. Increasing the time devoted to this instructional objective from 4 minutes to 52 minutes a day, over an average of only 25 school days, yielded an increase of 27 percentile points (from 39 to 66) on a standardized achievement test. The researchers who recorded these data indicated that although such large increases in instructional time might appear unusual, they actually were achieved by teachers in these elementary school classrooms and that improvements in standardized achievement can be achieved with even small increments of a teacher’s task orientation. 10  Chapter 1 The Effective Teacher Some task-related questions a teacher must answer are (1) How much time do I spend planning for teaching and getting my students ready to learn? (2) How much time do I spend presenting, ask- ing questions, and encouraging students to inquire or think independently? and (3) How much time do I spend assessing my learners’ performance? These questions pertain to how much content is presented, learned, and assessed, as opposed to how much time is delegated to procedural matters (for example, taking attendance, distributing handouts, collecting homework, checking for materials). All teachers need to prepare their students to learn and want them to enjoy learning. However, most researchers agree that student perfor- mance is higher in classrooms with teachers who spend the maximum amount of time available teaching subject-specific content, as opposed to devoting large amounts of time to the process and materials needed to acquire that content. It follows that classrooms in which teacher–student inter- actions focus efficiently on subject matter content, which allows students the maximum opportunity to learn and to practice what was taught, are more likely to have higher rates of achievement. But these classrooms also are those in which the relationship between the teacher and learners provides the energy to motivate and challenge learners to reach increasingly higher levels of understanding (Tileston, 2010). These topics are covered in Chapter 5, which prepares you to set goals and prepare objectives, and Chapter 6, which prepares you to execute them in your classroom with unit and lesson plans. Table 1.4 summarizes some of the indicators of a teacher’s task orientation and the effective teach- ing strategies that are covered in these chapters. Engagement in the Learning Process Student engagement in the learning process, called engaged learning time, is a key behavior that refers to the amount of time students devote to learning in your classroom. Student engagement is related to but different from a teacher’s task orientation. We learned in the previous section that a teacher’s task orientation should provide students the greatest possible opportunity to learn and to practice the material being taught. Table 1.4 Indicators for Teacher Task Orientation Being Task Oriented (An effective teacher...) Examples of Teaching Strategies 1. Develops unit and lesson plans that reflect the most Key each lesson to a unit plan, the curriculum guide, and relevant features of the curriculum guide or adopted text the text to test its relevance. Confer with other teachers (e.g., each unit and lesson objective can be referenced back concerning the most relevant portions of the text and to the curriculum guide or text) curriculum guide. 2. Handles administrative and clerical interruptions efficiently Establish a five- to ten-minute restriction on how much (e.g., visitors, announcements, collection of money, time per every hour of instruction you will devote to non- dispensing of materials and supplies) by anticipating instructional tasks. Defer all other tasks to before or after and organizing some tasks and deferring others to the lesson. non-instructional time 3. Stops or prevents misbehavior with a minimum of class Establish rules for the most common misbehaviors, disruption (e.g., has established academic and work rules and post them conspicuously. Identify only the offender to prevent intrusions into instructional time) and offense during instructional time, deferring the consequence to later. 4. Selects the most appropriate instructional model Using your unit plan, curriculum guide, or adopted text, for the objectives being taught (e.g., primarily uses divide the content to be taught into (a) facts, rules, direct instruction for knowledge and comprehension and action sequences, and (b) concepts, patterns, and objectives and indirect instruction for inquiry and problem abstractions. Generally, plan to use direct instruction for solving objectives) the former content and indirect instruction for the latter. 5. Builds to unit outcomes with clearly definable events (e.g., Establish a schedule in which major classroom activities weekly and monthly review, feedback, and testing sessions) begin and end with clearly visible events (e.g., minor and major tests, review and feedback sessions).  Chapter 1 The Effective Teacher  11 Distinct from your task orientation—or the amount of time you devote to teaching a topic—is the time your students are actively engaged in learning the material being taught. This has been called their engagement rate, or the percentage of time devoted to learning when your students are actually on task, atten- tive to, and engaged with the instructional materials and benefiting from the activities being presented. Even though a teacher may be task oriented and providing maximum content coverage, the students may be dis- engaged. This means they are not actively thinking about, working with, or using what is being presented. Such disengagement can involve an ­e motional or mental detachment from the ­lesson that may or may not be obvious. When students jump out of their seats, talk, read a magazine, or leave for the restroom, Iofoto/Shutterstock they obviously are not engaged in instruc- tion. ­Students also can be disengaged in far An important key behavior for effective teaching is the variability or more subtle ways, such as looking attentive flexibility of delivery during the presentation of a lesson. while their thoughts are many miles away. An unpleasant fact of life is that one-quarter of a class may be off task at any time, distracted for per- sonal reasons that are often amplified by an impending lunch period, a Friday afternoon, or the day before a holiday. Correcting this type of disengagement may be difficult, requiring changes in the structure of the task itself and the cognitive demands being placed on the learner. Strategies for composing tasks and activities that elicit the active participation of your learners are presented in Chapters 8 through 12. Several authors—Brophy, (2010); Emmer and Evertson (2016); Evertson and Emmer (2016); and Evertson (1995)—have contributed useful suggestions for increasing learning time and, more importantly, student engagement during learning. Their work provides the following suggestions for teachers for promoting student engagement: 1. Set rules that let pupils attend to their personal needs and work routines without obtaining your permission each time. 2. Move around the room to monitor pupils’ seatwork and to communicate your awareness of students’ progress. 3. Ensure that independent assignments are interesting, worthwhile, and easy enough to be completed by each pupil without your direction. 4. Minimize time-consuming activities, such as giving directions and organizing the class for instruction, by writing the daily schedule on the board. This will ensure that pupils know where to go and what to do. 5. Make abundant use of resources and activities that are at or slightly above a student’s current level of understanding. 6. Avoid timing errors. Act promptly to prevent misbehaviors from occurring or increasing in severity so they do not influence others in the class. These teaching practices have also been found to be beneficial for small groups and indepen- dent seatwork (Jones et al., 2007). These and other more specific ways of increasing your students’ engagement rate are explored in Chapters 11 and 12, which cover strategies for self-directed, con- structivist, cooperative, and collaborative learning. Table 1.5 summarizes some of the indicators of student engagement and effective teaching strategies covered in these chapters. 12  Chapter 1 The Effective Teacher Table 1.5 Indicators for Engaging Students in the Learning Process Engaging Students Effectively in the Learning Process (An effective teacher...) Examples of Teaching Strategies 1. Elicits the desired behavior immediately after the Schedule practice exercises or questions to immediately instructional stimuli (e.g., provides exercise or workbook follow each set of instructional stimuli. problems to practice the desired behavior) 2. Provides opportunities for feedback in a non-evaluative Require covert responding or non-evaluative (e.g., group) atmosphere (e.g., asks students to respond as a group or feedback at the start of a guided practice session. covertly the first time through the material) 3. Uses individual and group activities when needed (e.g., Have individualized instructional materials available (e.g., performance contracts, CD-ROMs, games and simulations, remedial exercises or supplemental texts) for those and learning centers as motivational aids) students who may need them. 4. Uses meaningful verbal praise to get and keep students Maintain a warm and nurturing atmosphere by providing actively participating in the learning process verbal praise and encouragement that is meaningful (e.g., explain why the answer was correct). Praise partially correct answers, with qualification. 5. Monitors seatwork and frequently checks progress during Limit contact with individual students during seatwork to independent practice about 30 seconds each, providing instructionally relevant answers. Circulate among the entire class. Student Success Rate Our final key to effective teaching behavior is student success rate. The term student success rate refers to the rate at which your students understand and correctly complete exercises and assignments. A crucial aspect of the previously cited research on teacher task orientation and student engage- ment has been the level of difficulty of the material being presented. In some of these studies, level of difficulty was measured by the rate at which students understood and correctly answered ques- tions on tests, exercises, and assignments. The three levels of difficulty are as follows: High success. The student understands the subject matter taught and makes only occasional careless errors. Moderate success. The student has partial understanding but makes some substantive errors. Low success. The student has little or no understanding of the subject matter. Not surprisingly, Good and Brophy (2007) and Marzano, Pickering, and Heflebower (2010), found that student engagement—the time the learner is actively engaged with, thinking about, and working with the content being taught—was closely related to student success rate, as shown in Figure 1.4. Instruction that produces a moderate to high success rate results in increased perfor- mance because more content is covered at the learner’s current level of understanding. This result was initially found for expository or didactic forms of instruction, with which learners are taught basic academic skills that are most easily learned through practice and repetition (Rosenshine, 1986). But more recent research has extended these findings to thinking skills instruction (Costa & Kallick,