Ch 3 A & P.pptx

RDH 226 A&P Review Key terms Anatomy Study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another Physiology Study of the function of body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities Anatomy and physiology are inseparable The structure d...

RDH 226 A&P Review Key terms Anatomy Study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another Physiology Study of the function of body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities Anatomy and physiology are inseparable The structure determines the function; function always reflects structure. Known as the principle of complementarity of structure and function Key terms cont’d Subdivisions of anatomy: Gross (or macroscopic) anatomy is the study of large, visible structures such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys. Regional anatomy looks at all structures in a particular area of the body at the same time System anatomy looks at just one system at a time (cardiovascular, nervous, muscular, etc.) Surface anatomy looks at internal structures as they relate to overlying skin (visible muscle masses or veins seen on surface) Key terms cont’d Subdivisions of anatomy cont’d: Microscopic anatomy deals with structures too small to be seen by naked eye Cytology: microscopic study of cells Histology: microscopic study of tissues Developmental anatomy studies anatomical and physiological development throughout life Embryology: study of developments before birth Levels of Organization Chemica Organell Cellular Tissue Organ System Organis l Level e Level Level Level Level Level m Level Cells Structure: Centrioles Ribosomes Plasma or cell ER (SER And RER) membrane Golgi complex (apparatus) Selective permeability Lysosomes Lipid bilayer (fluid Mitochondria mosaic model) Nucleus Cytoplasm: Peroxisomes Cytosol Proteasomes Cytoskeleton Organelles Cellular Membrane Transport Passive transport Active transport processes (no energy processes (energy required): required): Diffusion Active transport Simple diffusion Vesicular transport: Osmosis Endocytosis Facilitated diffusion Phagocytosis Filtration pinocytosis Exocytosis Cellular Metabolism Metabolism Anabolism-building large molecules from smaller; consumes energy Catabolism-breaking large molecules into smaller ones; releases energy Enzymes Chemical catalysts; reduce activation energy needed for a reaction Regulate cell metabolism -”ase” suffix Cell Growth and Reproduction Mitosis-cell division resulting in 2 identical daughter cells Diploid See p. 21 in text Meiosis-cell division associated with reproduction that results in 4 “mixed gene” daughter cells Cell Cycle Animation Link haploid Tissue Tissue components Cells Intercellular substance Tissue fluid Types of tissue in human body: Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Nerve tissue Muscle tissue Epithelial Tissue a sheet of cells that covers body surfaces or cavities 2 types: surface/lining and glandular Main functions: protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and sensory reception Desmosomal junctions Tight junctions; very little intercellular substance between cells Rests on basement membrane-superior to connective tissue Avascular, but innervated Highly regenerative Epithelial Tissue cont’d Surface epithelium: Glandular epithelium: Cell shapes: squamous, Made of secretory cuboidal, and columnar epithelium May have single or multiple Endocrine: internally layers of cells secreting (example: Other cell types present: hormones) Melanocytes, ductless inflammatory cells, Exocrine: externally Langerhans cells, secreting (example: Merkel cells sweat) Duct Can be unicellular such as goblet cell or multicellular such as salivary cells Connective Tissue Develops from embryonic mesenchyme Major functions: binding and support, protecting, insulating, storing reserve fuel, and transporting substances (blood) Large amounts of intercellular substance with fewer cells Varying level of vascularity Components: cells, fibers, ground substance* Connective Tissue cont’d 4 Main Types of Cells present: connective tissue: “blast” cells Connective tissue immature proper Fibro, chrondro, osteo Cartilage “cyte” cells Bone mature Blood Fat cells WBC’s Mast Cells Macrophages Connective Tissue cont’d Connective Tissue Cartilage: Proper: Tough yet flexible material Dense connective tissue: that lacks nerve fibers heavy, tightly packed Chondroblasts/cytes collagen fibers Avascular: receives Function: resist tension nutrients from membrane Loose connective tissue: surrounding it Collagen and reticulin (perichondrium) 3 types: hyaline, elastic, fibers Function: biological fibrocartilage support Connective Tissue cont’d Bone Blood Supports and protects Fluid; Considered body structures connective tissue because Stores fat and synthesizes it is derived from blood cells in cavities mesenchyme Osteoblasts/cytes RBCs are most common Richly vascularized Also contains white blood cells and platelets Fibers are soluble proteins that precipitate during blood clotting Functions in transport and in carrying nutrients, wastes, gases, and other substances Muscle Tissue Highly vascularized Responsible for most types of movement Muscle cells possess myofilaments made up of actin and myosin proteins that bring about contraction Three types of muscle tissues: Skeletal muscle (voluntary muscle) Attached to and causes movement of bones Cardiac muscle (Involuntary muscle) Found only in walls of heart; intercalated disks Smooth muscle (Involuntary muscle) Found mainly in walls of hollow organs (other than heart) Nervous Tissue Main component of nervous system (brain, spinal cord, nerves) Regulates and controls body functions Made up of two specialized cells: Neurons: specialized nerve cells that generate and conduct nerve impulses Supporting cells (neuroglia) that support, insulate, coordinate, and protect neurons CNS: PNS and ANS (PANS and SANS) BODY SYSTEMS Integumentary System Consists of: skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous (oil) glands Skin functions include: Protection Body temperature regulation Cutaneous sensations Metabolic functions Blood reservoir Excretion of wastes Integumentary System cont’d Epidermis: superficial region Dermis: underlies epidermis Consists of epithelial tissue Mostly fibrous connective and is avascular tissue, vascular Five layers Two layers 1. Stratum basale Papillary Reticular 2. Stratum spinosum Melanin: color 3. Stratum granulosum Only pigment made in 4. Stratum lucidum skin; made by (only in thick skin) melanocytes 5. Stratum corneum Skeletal System There are seven important functions of bones: 1. Support-for body and soft organs 2. Protection-protect brain, spinal cord, and vital organs 3. Movement-levers for muscle action 4. Mineral and growth factor storage-calcium and phosphorus, and growth factors reservoir 5. Blood cell formation-hematopoiesis occurs in red marrow cavities of certain bones 6. Triglyceride (fat) storage-fat, used for an energy source, is stored in bone cavities 7. Hormone production-osteocalcin secreted by bones helps to regulate insulin secretion, glucose levels, and metabolism Skeletal System cont’d 206 named bones in human skeleton Divided into two groups based on location Axial skeleton Long axis of body 80 bones: Skull, vertebral column, rib cage Appendicular skeleton Bones of upper and lower limbs Girdles attaching limbs to axial skeleton  Skeletal System cont’d Bones are also classified according to one of four shapes: 1. Long bones-Longer than they are wide Limb bones 2. Short bones-Cube-shaped bones Wrist and ankle bones Sesamoid (special) bones form within tendons Ex: patella 3. Flat bones-Thin, flat, slightly curved Sternum, scapulae, ribs, most skull bones 4. Irregular bones-Complicated shapes Vertebrae and hip bones Skeletal System cont’d Compact bone: dense outer layer on every bone that appears smooth and solid Spongy bone (or cancellous bone, or trabecular bone): made up of a honeycomb of small, needle-like or flat pieces of bone called trabeculae Open spaces between trabeculae are filled with red or yellow bone marrow Skeletal System cont’d Structure of typical long bone All long bones have a: Diaphysis: tubular shaft that forms long axis of bone Consists of compact bone surrounding central medullary cavity that is filled with yellow marrow in adults Epiphyses: ends of long bones that consist of compact bone externally and spongy bone internally Articular cartilage covers articular (joint) surfaces Skeletal System cont’d Membranes: Endosteum (internal lining) Periosteum (external lining) Cells: Osteogenic (stem) Osteoblasts Osteocytes Osteoclasts Periosteal cells, endosteal cells Skeletal System cont’d Red marrow Yellow marrow Found in virtually all Replaces red marrow bones in infant/child with age Adult: found in ribs, Marrow cells become vertebral bodies, saturated with fat and humerus, pelvis, and are no longer in active femur blood cell production Produces red blood Can revert to red cells marrow during times of decreased blood supply Skeletal System cont’d Generalized knowledge of the bones*: Skull (Ch 4) Vertebral column sternum, ribs Scapula, clavicle Humerus, radius, ulna, hand bones Ilium, pubis, ischium Femur, patella, tibia, fibula, foot bones Skeletal System cont’d Vertebral column: Flexible curved structure contains 26 irregular bones called vertebrae in five major regions: 1. Cervical: consists of 7 vertebrae* 2. Thoracic: 12 vertebrae Remember meal times: 7 am, 12 noon, and 5 pm 3. Lumbar: 5 vertebrae 4. Sacrum: one bone; formed from fusion of 5 bones 5. Coccyx: also (4-5) fused bones-terminus of column Skeletal System cont’d Joints Joints, also called articulations: sites where two or more bones meet Functions of joints: give skeleton mobility and hold skeleton together Two classifications: 1. Structural: three types based on what material binds the joints and whether a cavity is present Fibrous Cartilaginous Synovial 2. Functional: three types based on movement joint allows Synarthroses: immovable joints Amphiarthroses: slightly movable joints Diarthroses: freely movable joints Joints cont’d Fibrous: Cartilaginous Joints Bones joined by dense Bones united by cartilage fibrous connective tissue Like fibrous joints, have no No joint cavity joint cavity Most are immovable Not highly movable Three types of fibrous Two types joints Synchondroses Sutures Symphyses Syndesmoses Gomphoses Joints cont’d Synovial Joints Bones separated by fluid- filled joint cavity All are diarthrotic (freely movable) Include almost all limb joints Have six general features Articular cartilage synovial cavity joint capsule synovial fluid reinforcing ligaments nerves/blood vessels Joints cont’d Joint Movements Joint Classifications Muscle System Functions: Produce movement Stabilize body positions Regulate organ volume Move substances within the body Produce heat All muscles share 4 main characteristics: Excitability (responsiveness): ability to receive and respond to stimuli Contractility: ability to shorten forcibly when stimulated Extensibility: ability to be stretched Elasticity: ability to recoil to resting length Muscle System cont’d Three types of muscle tissue* Skeletal-skeleton, striated, voluntary longest of all muscle Cardiac-heart, striated, involuntary Smooth-hollow visceral organs, nonstriated, involuntary Muscle System cont’d Skeletal muscle: Each skeletal muscle, as well as each muscle fiber, is covered in connective tissue Support cells and reinforce whole muscle Sheaths from external to internal: Epimysium: dense irregular connective tissue surrounding entire muscle; may blend with fascia Perimysium: fibrous connective tissue surrounding fascicles (groups of muscle fibers) Endomysium: fine areolar connective tissue surrounding each muscle fiber Muscle System cont’d Skeletal muscle: Muscles attach to bone in at least two places Insertion: attachment to movable bone Origin: attachment to immovable or less movable bone Attachments can be direct or indirect Direct (fleshy): epimysium fused to periosteum of bone or perichondrium of cartilage Indirect: connective tissue wrappings extend beyond muscle as ropelike tendon or sheet-like aponeurosis Muscle System cont’d Muscle Movements: Prime mover (agonist) muscles that directly perform a specific movement Antagonist when contracting, directly oppose the prime movers; relax while the agonist is contracting to produce movement; provide precision and control during prime mover contraction Synergists contract at same time as prime mover does; facilitates prime mover actions to produce a more efficient movement Fixator muscles stabile joints Levers: bones serve as lever, joints as fulcrums, and muscles apply force to move bone at the fulcrum Muscle System cont’d Muscle System cont’d Muscles cells: Muscle fiber Sarcolemma Sarcoplasmic reticulum Myofibrils Sarcomere Striated (dark and light stripes) T-tubule Triad Crash Course Vi Myofilaments deo #1 Myosin, actin, tropomyosin, troponin Crash Course Vi deo (#2) Muscle System cont’d Generalized knowledge of the major (superficial) muscles: Nervous System Nervous system is the master controlling and communicating system of body Cells communicate via electrical and chemical signals; these are rapid and specific and usually cause almost immediate responses Nervous system has three overlapping functions 1. Sensory input-Information gathered by sensory receptors occurring both inside and outside of the body 2. Integration-Processing, interpretation, and decisions based on sensory input 3. Motor output-Activation of effector organs (muscles and glands) produces a response Crash Course Link #1 Crash Course Link #2 Crash Course Link #3 Nervous System cont’d *SAME or *Aroma/Exercise Nervous System cont’d Nervous tissue consists Neuron process: of two principal cell types: Dendrites Neuroglia (or glial Axons cells): small cells that Myelin sheath surround and wrap Myelinated fibers (rapid delicate neurons conduction) Neurons (nerve Schwann cells and cells): excitable cells nodes of Ranvier Nonmyelinated fibers that transmit electrical (slower conduction) signals Nervous System cont’d Endocrine System Endocrinology: study of hormones and endocrine organs Endocrine system acts with nervous system to coordinate and integrate activity of body cells Influences metabolic activities via hormones transported in blood Responses slower but longer lasting than nervous system responses Endocrine system controls and integrates: Reproduction Growth and development Maintenance of electrolyte, water, and nutrient balance of blood Regulation of cellular metabolism and energy balance Mobilization of body defenses Endocrine System cont’d Endocrine organs: Glands: pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands Hypothalamus (a neuroendocrine organ) Pancreas, gonads, placenta Other tissues and organs that produce hormones Thymus, adipose cells,, and cells in walls of small intestine, stomach, kidneys, and heart Endocrine System cont’d Classification of hormones: Function: Tropic hormones-stimulate other endocrine glands Sex hormones-target reproductive tissues Anabolic hormones-stimulate anabolism in target cells Can also be classified by chemical structure: Ex. Steroid hormones, nonsteroid hormones, protein hormones, glycoprotein hormones, peptide hormones, and amino acid derivative hormones MOA: Hormones circulate systemically, but only those with receptors for a specific hormone (target cells) are affected Hormones alter target cell activity*  Endocrine System cont’d Negative Feedback System Endocrine System cont’d Hormones *Oxytocin Thyroid hormone (T) glucagon *Antidiuretic hormone Parathyroid hormone estrogens (ADH) (PTH) Growth hormone (GH) Mineralocorticoids progesterone Thyroid-stimulating Glucocorticoids testosterone hormone (TSH) Adrenocorticotrophic Gonadocorticoids human chorionic hormone (ACTH) gonadotropin (hCG) Follicle-stimulating Catecholamines: Thymus: Thymulin, hormone (FSH) epi & NE thymopoietins, and thymosins Luteinizing hormone (LH) melatonin Prolactin (PRL) Insulin Know basic hormone(s) and function (of the hormone) for each endocrine organ Cardiovascular System Heart is a transport system consisting of 2 side-by-side pumps Right side receives oxygen-poor blood* from tissues Pumps blood to lungs to exchange CO2 for O2, via pulmonary circuit Left side receives oxygenated (oxygen-rich) blood* from lungs Pumps blood to tissues via systemic circuit  Cardiovascular System cont’d Because of the 2 pumping systems, the heart has 2 receiving chambers and 2 pumping chambers (4 total): Receiving chambers of heart* Right atrium: Receives blood returning from systemic circuit Left atrium: Receives blood returning from pulmonary circuit Pumping chambers of heart Right ventricle: Pumps blood through pulmonary circuit Left ventricle: Pumps blood through systemic circuit Cardiovascular System cont’d Three layers of heart wall Epicardium: also known as the visceral layer of serous pericardium (heart covering) Myocardium: composed mainly of cardiac muscle; contracting layer; forms bulk of heart Endocardium: innermost layer; continuous with endothelial lining of blood vessels leaving and entering heart Approximately the size of a fist; weighs less than 1 pound Located in mediastinum between 2nd rib and 5th intercostal space Superior to diaphragm Two-thirds of heart sits to left of midsternal line Anterior to vertebral column, posterior to sternum Cardiovascular System cont’d 2 atrioventricular (AV) valves prevent backflow into atria when ventricles contract Tricuspid valve (right AV valve): made up of three cusps and lies between right atria and ventricle Mitral valve (left AV valve, bicuspid valve): made up of two cusps and lies between left atria and ventricle 2 Semilunar (SL) valves prevent backflow from major arteries back into ventricles: Pulmonary (SL) valve: located between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk Aortic (SL) valve: located between left ventricle and aorta Cardiovascular System cont’d Sequence of Electrical Excitation Cardiac Cycle-all events associated with HB In a normal cardiac cycle, the 2 atria contract while ventricles relax and vice versa Systole: refers to period of heart contraction Diastole: refers to period of heart relaxation Entire process ~.22 seconds in healthy heart  Cardiovascular System cont’d Heart sounds-(lub-dup) Cardiac Output (CO): Volume First sound is closing of AV of blood pumped by ventricle valves at beginning of into aorta; it is the product of ventricular systole heart rate (HR) stroke volume Second sound is closing of (SV) SL valves at beginning of Variable: can increase on ventricular diastole demand (i.e. running) Pause between lub-dups is Stroke volume (SV): volume heart relaxation of blood pumped out by Heart rate (HR) = # of beats per ventricle with each beat minute; can be regulated: Normal SV is 5.25 L/min Autonomic nervous system Normal adult blood vol. is Chemicals ~5 L; So the entire blood Other factors (age, gender, supply passes through each side of the heart, exercise, body temperature) once each minute. Cardiovascular System cont’d 1. Arteries: carry blood away from heart Are said to: “branch” “diverge” “fork” Arterioles: smallest arteries (toward capillary beds) 2. Veins: carry blood toward heart Are said to: “join” “merge” “converge” Have valves to prevent backward blood flow Venules: smallest veins (away from capillary beds) 3. Capillaries: microscopic vessels in direct contact with tissue cells via capillary beds An interwoven network of capillaries between arterioles and venules Blood Blood is the life-sustaining Physical Characteristics: transport vehicle of the Blood is a sticky, opaque fluid cardiovascular system. Blood with metallic taste is the only fluid (connective Color varies with O2 content tissue) tissue in body. High O2 levels show a Its functions include: scarlet red Transport Low O2 levels show a dark Regulation red Protection pH 7.35–7.45 Components: Makes up ~8% of body weight Plasma Average volume: Formed elements (RBCs, Males: 5–6 L WBCs, and platelets) Females: 4–5 L Blood cont’d ABO Blood Groups Remember: RBC membranes carry specific markers called agglutinogens Blood may contain anti- A or anti-B antibodies called agglutinins An agglutinogen is an antigen and agglutinin is an antibody! Antibodies act against foreign antigens! Lymphatic System The lymphatic system and lymphoid organs and tissues are 2 functionally different, yet structurally overlapping systems. The Lymphatic system returns fluids leaked from blood vessels back to blood; consists of 3 parts: 1. a Network of lymphatic vessels (lymphatics) 2. Lymph: the fluid in vessels 3. Lymph nodes: cleanse lymph* as it passes through Lymphoid organs and tissues provide structural basis of immune system Structures include spleen, thymus, tonsils, and other lymphoid tissues The lymph nodes (play a role in both) Lymphatic System cont’d As blood circulates, nutrients, wastes, and gases are exchanged between blood and interstitial fluid. Fluid and plasma proteins must be returned to blood to ensure sufficient blood volume. The Lymphatic system is the route of return. Lymphatics are an elaborate network of drainage vessels including: Lymphatic capillaries Collecting lymphatic vessels Lymphatic trunks Right lymphatic duct (which drains right upper arm, right side of head, and right side of thorax) Thoracic duct (which drains rest of body) Lymph nodes Lymphatic vessels are a one-way system, ensuring lymph flows only toward heart. Lymphatic System cont’d Lymphoid organs and tissues in the immune system: Lymphoid tissue-houses and provides proliferation sites for lymphocytes Offers surveillance vantage points for lymphocytes and macrophages as they filter through lymph Primary lymphoid organs: areas where T and B cells mature T and B cells both originate in RED bone marrow B cells mature in RED bone marrow; T cells mature in thymus Secondary lymphoid organs: areas where mature lymphocytes first encounter their antigen and become activated Lymph nodes, spleen, MALT* (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue) and diffuse lymphoid tissues Immune System Immune system-comprises a wide variety of body reactions to fight invasions of pathogens 2 types of two intrinsic systems: Innate (nonspecific) Crash Course Pt 1 Link 1st line: Mechanical and chemical barriers 2nd line: Phagocytes, Inflammation 3rd line: NK cells, antimicrobial proteins Adaptive (specific, or acquired) Crash Course Pt 2 link Is specific, systemic, and has memory Part of the 3rd line-consisting of lymphocytes B Cells (antibody-mediated immunity) T Cells (cell-mediated immunity) Immunity: resistance to disease Respiratory System Major functions of respiratory system: supply body with O2 for cellular respiration and dispose of CO2, a waste product of cellular respiration Respiration involves four processes Pulmonary ventilation (breathing): movement of air into and out of lungs Respiratory External respiration: exchange system of O2 and CO2 between lungs and blood Transport of O2 and CO2 in blood Internal respiration: exchange of Circulatory O2 and CO2 between systemic system blood vessels and tissues Respiratory System cont’d Major organs Nose Upper Nasal cavity respiratory Paranasal sinuses Pharynx Larynx Trachea Lower respiratory Bronchi and branches Lungs and alveoli Respiratory System cont’d Pulmonary ventilation (respiratory cycle) consists of 2 phases: Inspiration: gases flow into lungs Expiration: gases exit lungs The pulmonary ventilation mechanism must establish 2 gas pressure gradients*: One in which the pressure within the alveoli of the lungs is lower than atmospheric pressure to produce inspiration One in which the pressure within the alveoli of the lungs is higher than atmospheric pressure to produce expiration  Respiratory System cont’d Pressure gradients are established by changes in the size of the thoracic cavity that are produced by contraction and relaxation of muscles Inspiration—contraction of the diaphragm produces inspiration—as it contracts, it makes the thoracic cavity larger Expiration—a passive process that begins when the inspiratory muscles are relaxed, which decreases the size of the thorax (Muscle reflex) Respiratory System cont’d Digestive System Main functions of the digestive system Take in food Break it down into nutrient molecules Absorb molecules into the bloodstream Rid body of any indigestible remains Organs of the digestive system fall into 2 groups: Alimentary canal (GI tract or gut) A tube that runs from the mouth to anus Organs: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus Accessory digestive organs Organs: teeth, tongue, gallbladder, digestive glands (such as salivary glands, liver, pancreas)  Digestive System cont’d Processing of food involves six essential activities: 1. Ingestion: eating 2. Propulsion: movement of food through the alimentary canal, which includes: Swallowing (voluntary) Peristalsis* (involuntary) 3. Mechanical breakdown: includes chewing, mixing food with saliva, churning food in stomach, and segmentation* 4. Digestion: series of catabolic steps that involves enzymes that break down complex food molecules into chemical building blocks 5. Absorption: passage of digested fragments from lumen of GI tract into blood or lymph 6. Defecation: elimination of indigestible substances via anus in form of feces Urinary System The function of the urinary system is not only to produce urine, but to balance the composition of blood plasma. The primary organs are the kidneys. Control homeostasis of water, electrolytes, and pH of body fluids Accessory organs are ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra Aid in excretion of waste Be sure to review the functions of the kidneys on p. 100 Crash Course Pt 1 Crash Course Pt 2 Urinary System cont’d Nephrons are the structural and functional units that form urine Over 1 million per kidney 2 main parts of a nephron: Renal corpuscle located in cortex 2 parts: glomerulus and glomerular capsule Renal tubule Starts in cortex, passes to medulla and then returns to cortex 3 parts: proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop, distal convoluted tubule Urinary System cont’d 3 processes are involved in urine formation and adjustment of blood composition: 1. Glomerular filtration: produces cell- and protein-free filtrate; takes place in the renal corpuscle 2. Tubular reabsorption: selectively returns 99% of substances from filtrate back into blood; takes place in renal tubules and collecting ducts 3. Tubular secretion: selectively moves substances from blood into filtrate; also takes place in renal tubules and collecting ducts Reproductive System “Slumbers” until puberty Primary sex organs (or gonads): are the testes and ovaries Gonads produce gametes: sperm and ova Which secrete steroid sex hormones Androgens (males) Estrogens and progesterone (females) The remaining reproduction organs, ducts, glands, and external genitalia, are Accessory reproductive organs. Know the hormonal influences for both sexes!