Physical Activity & Sport Issues PDF

Physical Activity & Sport Issues “Examining Sport Sociology” Chapter 20 Sport Books Publisher 1 Definitions Modern sport reflects our society – e.g., winning at all costs, no matter how attitude, even if it results in questionable...

Physical Activity & Sport Issues “Examining Sport Sociology” Chapter 20 Sport Books Publisher 1 Definitions Modern sport reflects our society – e.g., winning at all costs, no matter how attitude, even if it results in questionable behavior. Sociology: is the study of the functioning of human society in various environments (e.g., workplace, church, school) Sport sociology: is the study of the functioning of society within the modern sport environment Sport Books Publisher 2 Important Issues in Sport Sociology Specifically, we will discuss: – Aggression and Violence in Sport – Cheating in Sport – Gender and Sport – Race and Ethnicity in Sport – Racism in Sport – Other Victims of Discrimination – Future Sporting Trends Sport Books Publisher 3 Aggression and Violence in Sport Sport Books Publisher 4 Violence in sports parallels the reality of violence in society as a whole – We see examples of societal violence watching the evening news – Sports news isn’t much better Sport Books Publisher 5 Examples of Violence in Sport Soccer – 2006: Zinedine Zidane head butts Marco Materazzi in World cup final Hockey – 2000: Marty McSorley knocks out Donald Brashear by slashing him in the head with his stick Basketball – 1995: Vernon Maxwell hits an abusive fan in the stands Baseball 2000 – Roger Clemens throws the jagged piece of a broken bat at Mike Piazza Examples can be found in almost every sport Can you think of any other examples? Sport Books Publisher 6  Definitions Violence = extreme aggression There are three distinct components of aggressive behaviour: 1. Hostile Aggression 2. Instrumental Aggression 3. Assertive Behaviour Sport Books Publisher 7  Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression The intent is to cause The intent is to cause harm harm The goal is to cause The goal is to achieve suffering some external reward Anger is usually No anger is involved involved Performed outside Performed within the the rules of the game rules of the game Sport Books Publisher 8  Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression The intent is to cause The intent is to cause harm harm The goal is to cause The goal is to achieve suffering some external award Anger is usually No anger is involved involved Performed outside Performed within the the rules of the game rules of the game e.g., fist-fighting in hockey Sport Books Publisher 9  Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression The intent is to cause The intent is to cause harm harm The goal is to cause The goal is to achieve suffering some external award Anger is usually No anger is involved involved Performed outside Performed within the the rules of the game rules of the game e.g., fist-fighting in hockey e.g., aggressive checking meant to hurt the opponent Sport Books Publisher 10 Assertive Behaviour Often confused with aggression Seen as increased effort and energy expenditure No intent to harm No anger involved May result in harm, but any resultant harm is incidental to the game e.g., Assertive checking, tackling, blocking meant to slow down the opponent Sport Books Publisher 11 What Causes Aggressive Behaviour in Sport? The following causes most likely interact to cause aggressive behaviour Sport Books Publisher 12 1. Parents and coaches Through comments, e.g., “Bob can really take care of himself.” By demonstrating interest in televised sporting event TSN highlights of fights in hockey and other non combative sports Recommendations: 1. Good role models need to convey a negative reaction to aggression Sport Books Publisher 13 2. Outcome of the contest and league standing More aggression occurs after losing a contest – Frustration Lower league standing teams demonstrate more aggression – Frustration and they have little to lose Recommendations: 1. Refocus the team's efforts into more productive channels, e.g., a new game plan Sport Books Publisher 14 3. Point spread The larger the point spread, the more aggression occurs – Nothing to lose because game is perceived to be out of reach Recommendations 1. Refocus attention, e.g., try out a new play Sport Books Publisher 15 4. Physical contact Sports with a lot of physical contact result in more aggression – If player believes that the opponent is trying to hurt them there is an increased likelihood that aggression will occur Recommendations: 1. Encouraging athletes to increase effort vs. aggressive acts 2. Victory (vs. harm) = the ultimate way to get back at an opponent Sport Books Publisher 16 5. Fan Reaction More aggression occurs when a team plays away from home – Linked to fan reaction, i.e., unfriendly crowd is likely to anger the visiting team Recommendations: 1. Players must learn to “tune out” this fan reaction and focus on the game Sport Books Publisher 17 Sexual Harassment A common problematic form of sexual harassment is Hazing Hazing is broadly defined as any act that causes physical or mental harm Research indicates that 9 out of 10 University athletes report being hazed during their career Hazing becomes sexual harassment when it involves inappropriate touching and or declothing of a student. Sport Books Publisher 18 Cheating in Sport Sport Books Publisher 19 Cheating = behaviour aimed at getting around the rules or simply breaking them Why do athletes engage in cheating? 1. The win-at-all-costs mentality 2. Cheating results from not abiding by the sport ethic Ben Johnson’s world record in the 100-metre dash in the 1988 Summer Olympics before he was stripped of his win for using anabolic steroids. Sport Books Publisher 20 The Sport Ethic What is it? Defined as a cluster of norms that describe what it means to be a successful athlete Four specific norms make up the sport ethic Sport Books Publisher 21 1. An athlete makes sacrifices for the game Athlete must love the game above all else, i.e., give it total priority This involves: – Meeting the competition demands without question – Making sacrifices (e.g., family, work, friends) Sport Books Publisher 22 2. An athlete strives for distinction Constantly seeking improvement Continuously getting closer to perfection “Citius Altius Fortius” (faster, higher, stronger) Tatiana Grigorieva Sport Books Publisher 23 3. An athlete accepts risks and plays through pain Athlete does not give in to pressure, pain, or fear Success comes with: – Overcoming the fear and challenge of competition – Accepting the increased risk of failure and injury Sport Books Publisher 24 4. An athlete accepts no limit in the pursuit of possibilities Obligation to pursue one’s dream to succeed without question Anything is possible if a person is dedicated enough Sport Books Publisher 25 Cheating occurs when the norms of the sport ethic are not accepted. Sport Books Publisher 26  The Most Popular Form of Deviance Sport Books Publisher 27 Athlete Recruitment Rules are bent in order to sign promising talent e.g., “getting around” the rules regarding athletic scholarships “Ignoring” the required admission average standards Others? Sport Books Publisher 28 Academic Cheating Athletes have their course work written by “academic support” staff or other students NB: Little evidence that athletes engage in more academic cheating than other students However, cheating is cheating! – Pressure to maintain a certain GPA hasthe potential to cause athletes to consider cheating Sport Books Publisher 29 Cheating in Games Modification of equipment – Fencing: rewiring athletes – Baseball: using cork-filled bats, applying Vaseline on the ball – Hockey: curve and width of the stick Modification of play – Basketball: using physical contact to throw-off an opponent’s jump shot when out of the referee’s sight lines – Soccer: grabbing an opponent's jersey or shorts to slow them down – Water Polo watch below the surface Others? Sport Books Publisher 30 Performance- Enhancing Drugs 1. To gain a winning edge 2. Just to stay competitive e.g., Ben Johnson tragedy IOC considers certain performance- enhancing drugs illegal because: 1. They give one an unfair advantage 2. They have serious health side-effects Athletes must be counselled to stay drug- free Sport Books Publisher 31  Drug Physiological Effect Performance Effect Anabolic ↑ muscle mass ↑ muscle strength and steroids power Amphetamines ↑ muscle tension, HR, Prepare body for BP competition Cocaine Physiological Help overcome fear stimulant Rectal Air ↓ body density ↑ swimmer’s buoyancy Injections (Wow!) Alkalines Neutralize Postpone fatigue accumulation of acids in the blood Blood Boosting ↑ oxygen carrying Postpone fatigue capacity Beta-adrenergic Physiological sedative To steady the hands receptors Sport Books Publisher 32  Gender and Sport What are the issues? Sport Books Publisher 33  What Prevented Women From Participating in Physical Activity in the Past? Sport Books Publisher 34 1. Lack of rights Women were not allowed to vote, get education, make own decisions, etc. This prevented them from making decisions with respect to their participation in physical activity 1948 Olympics – 400m relay Sport Books Publisher 35 2. Emphasis on reproduction Women were described almost exclusively by their biology as reproducing organisms Physical exertion was thought to destroy a woman’s potential to have children Sport Books Publisher 36 3. Societal expectations Women were expected to act “lady-like” – Female athletes were negatively labelled because they did not act in accordance with these norms Many sports were discouraged because they prevented women from acting “lady-like” – e.g., bicycling Female athletes were expected to emphasize their femininity – e.g., by wearing feminine clothes, which generally impaired performance Sport Books Publisher 37 Access to Sport for Women Single most important change in the world of sport over the past generation was – INCREASED PARTICIPATION OF FEMALES Women can now freely participate in sports that were not available to them a few decades ago Sport Books Publisher 38 What Led to the Increased Participation of Females in Sport? Sport Books Publisher 39 1. New Opportunities Development of new teams and programs since the late 1970’s is linked with increased participation – Unfortunately, women still don’t receive an equal share of opportunities in today’s society - e.x.? These new opportunities have resulted from political changes Sport Books Publisher 40 2. Political Pressure and Equal Rights Legislation In early 1980’s in Canada, pressure from women’s groups led to the investigation of sport opportunities Findings from 1984 study: – 64% of inter-collegiate athletes were males Findings from 1987 study: – 64% of inter-collegiate athletes were still males Today – More females enjoy equal access in university sports – Women’s sports are not usually promoted as mass sports – Male athletes still enjoy greater financial rewards than female athletes Sport Books Publisher 41 3. The Global Women’s Rights Movement Over the past 30 years: Emphasized that females excel as human beings when they are given the opportunity to develop their physical abilities Played role in redefining occupational and family roles for women In 1996, U.N.’s Fourth World Conference on Women called for: Increased efforts to provide sports opportunities New efforts to promote education, health, and human rights for females all over the world Sport Books Publisher 42 4. The Expanding Health and Fitness Movement Since the mid-1970’s health research highlighted the many benefits of regular participation in physical activity for females Today, well-toned muscles and CV fitness are no longer seen as desirable only in the male population Some traditional standards still remain in terms of clothing fashion and marketing strategies – Examples? Sport Books Publisher 43 5. Increased Media Coverage of Women In Sport Today, there are increased opportunities for girls and women to follow female athletes in media This provides them with role models and encourages them to be active athletes themselves Unfortunately, women’s sports are still not covered as often or with the same detail as men’s sports – Examples? Sport Books Publisher 44  In Summary The preceding factors have: – Collectively fostered increased interest in sport participation for females – Emphasized that gender equity in sports is an important goal In today’s society, – Gender equity is far from being achieved Example? – But the movement is underway and there is no turning back Sport Books Publisher 45  Race and Ethnicity in Sport Sport Books Publisher 46 Definitions Race – Involves reference to physical traits – BUT is really based on meanings that people have given to those particular physical traits Ethnicity – Not based on physical traits – Based on characteristics associated with cultural traditions and background Minority group – A socially identified group that experiences discrimination and suffers social disadvantages Sport Books Publisher 47  Racism in Sport Sport Books Publisher 48 The Black Athlete – View of the Past Only white athletes were allowed to play on major league baseball teams Black athletes played in Negro Leagues Jackie Robinson – first black baseball player to play in the major leagues (1947) Sport Books Publisher 49 The Black Athlete - Progress Progress has been made leading to a significant increase in black athlete representation Black Athlete Representation Trends in Three Professional Sports 90 80 Baseball 70 Football Percentage (%) 60 50 Basketball 40 30 20 10 0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Year However, the majority of people in power (e.g., team owners) are white, so the possibility of unequal access still exists Sport Books Publisher 50 Other Victims of Discrimination Sport Books Publisher 51 Canada’s First Nations Two major concerns of native people with respect to sports: 1. Equity concerns Natives are at the bottom of the social ladder They lack financial resources, sports facilities, coaching, and sporting event opportunities 2. Cultural concerns Maintenance of cultural values in sports e.g., maintenance of snow snake or lacrosse e.g., maintenance of inclusion and sharing (vs. competition) Sport Books Publisher 52 Disabilities and Sport Traditionally people with disabilities have been segregated in our society and sports Determination shown by Terry Fox, Rick Hansen, and others has led to highlighted attention of achievements of disabled athletes Changes that allowed disabled individuals to become less segregated members of our society: – Crippled, handicapped, retarded disabled – More sporting events are being offered – Bill C-62 – More ramps and accessibility – Others? Sport Books Publisher 53  Gay Athletes Professional sport is highly male, heterosexual, and Martina homophobic Navratilova “Coming out” in a sporting environment puts individual’s social status, family and fan affection, and even success at risk Dave Kopay NFL Football player (1975) - First North American athlete to Greg Louganis “come out” as gay Sport Books Publisher 54 Gay Games – Formed in 1982 – Since then their popularity has increased tremendously – People of all sexual orientations are welcomed – Key philosophy: PARTICIPATION, SUPPORT, INCLUSIVENESS AND ENJOYMENT – This philosophy is opposite to conventional international competitions, which stress exclusion and ranking Sport Books Publisher 55 Older Adults in Sport Older adults were discouraged from participating in sport due to: 1. Developmental theory 2. Old Medical practice Today, physical activity is viewed as part of an overall healthy lifestyle in persons of all ages Organized sports are being established to meet the needs of older adults – Allow a great deal of social interactions – Do not involve intimidation, use of physical force, or high-risk activities Sport Books Publisher 56  Physical Activity and Sport Trends Sport Books Publisher 57 Heath and Fitness Concerns Will Continue to Increase Greater emphasis on illness prevention vs. treatment – Physical activity will become an integral part of illness prevention Wellness movement – Emphasis on involvement in participation sports vs. performance sports Educational curricula – Less emphasis on performance sports – More emphasis on physical activities that involve lifetime skills Sport Books Publisher 58 Groups Seeking Alternative Sports Rejection of traditional performance sports for alternative sports Youths will continue to form own sport in order to avoid the constraints of traditional sports Alternative sports will embody some aspects of pleasure and participation sports Sport Books Publisher 59 Spectators and Spectator Sports More people will choose to watch vs. participate in sports Increasing variation in the sports to watch – e.g., soccer, alternative sports, fishingchannel Increased exposure to sports from other cultures Virtual sports Sport Books Publisher 60