CH 2 Lectures.docx

You absolutely can not post the BPs and the lecture notes online nor disseminate them. Not now and NOT EVER. Copyrighted material. Thank you for your respect and cooperation :) PSY1101 [A] Thursday May 4, 2023 Lecture 1: Chapter 2: Research Methods *Book examples will be on exam Introduction De...

You absolutely can not post the BPs and the lecture notes online nor disseminate them. Not now and NOT EVER. Copyrighted material. Thank you for your respect and cooperation :) PSY1101 [A] Thursday May 4, 2023 Lecture 1: Chapter 2: Research Methods *Book examples will be on exam Introduction Definition: Psychology is a science (not a soft science). Psychology is the scientific study of how we think, feel, and behave. It is the scientific study of mental (thoughts, emotions, motivations, etc.) and behavioral processes. Scope: The scope of psychology is huge; every single aspect of human life is of interest to psychologists, and it involves psychological principles and dynamics. Why do we need science? Intuition: Why can’t we rely on our intuition? There are moments in life where we must listen to intuition. However, when it comes to learning about the natural world we cannot rely on intuition because intuition is misleading, and we need science. Ex. Intuition led us to believe that the earth was flat, science proved us wrong. Common sense: Can we rely on common sense? No; common sense is not so common. Common sense is subjective. Even when we have good, solid common sense, we cannot rely on it because common sense does not generate new knowledge/information; it is the result of having learned something or having experienced something. This is why we can’t rely on it and we need science. Overconfidence: When it comes to our knowledge and its accuracy, we tend to be overconfident. There is a gap between our confidence and the accuracy of our knowledge. We are more confident than we are accurate; this is based on research. How do we know? This is a philosophical question that is hotly debated. Two main schools of thought: Rationalism: We cannot trust our senses, they are unreliable. The best way to know is to use pure reason, pure logic, pure critical thinking. Empiricism: The best way to know is to use our senses and via systematic observation. Kant: Strongly believed that we need both empiricism and rationalism in order to know (systematic observation but we also need pure reason to organize the information in a meaningful and coherent way). The scientific method: The scientific method has been evolving for a few hundred years. Any field of study that follows the scientific method is a science. It’s not the topic you study, it’s the method you follow. The following steps of the scientific method are elaborated in the book: Identify gather information. develop a hypothesis (See below) design and conduct experiment (or other type of studies). analyze the data and draw conclusion. restart the process. Develop a hypothesis: Part of the scientific method is to develop hypothesis and test them empirically. Follow strict scientific rules when you test hypotheses. Definition: Hypotheses is a tentative statement/prediction that is going to be scientifically investigated. It is not the truth. Must be falsifiable: One of the strict scientific rules that we must follow to test a hypothesis is ensuring that it is falsifiable. This means that we must be able to put it to the test, to prove it wrong. If we cannot do this, it is not considered to be a scientifically viable hypothesis. To prove it wrong, all we need is one single example that is contrary to out hypothesis. If you can prove it wrong, it has been falsified. Ex. Can the statement, “All lions are black” be falsified? All you must do is find a picture of a lion that is not black. Ex. “Ghosts exist” cannot be falsified because you can’t prove whether ghosts are real or not. Replication: In science, we must replicate our studies with different sets of subjects. If we get similar results, our confidence in those results will grow. On the other hand, if we repeat the study and receive different results, we must go back to the drawing board and try to figure out why we did not get the same results. Evolution: Science is in a constant state of evolution. What we know today may change tomorrow. Science is self-correcting; the more we refine our questions, methodologies, technologies, etc. the more refined our knowledge will be. Types of Research Methods (3 major types) Descriptive Research: A.1- Purpose: What is the purpose of descriptive research? Observe and describe. It allows: It allows us to answer the following questions: What When Where How However, it does not: Descriptive research does not allow to draw conclusions about cause and effect; we can only theorize; doesn’t tell us the why. A.2- Case Study: Definition: Studies in-depth either a single person or a very small group of people. Researchers will gather as much information as possible. Advantages: It is the most in-depth research you can do. These studies may allow us to capture a glimpse of human nature. Keep a record: It’s a great way to keep a record of cases that are so rare that they could be lost. 1rst step: It is an excellent first step when we do not know much about something, or when it is too complex. Most: in depth research Capture: glimpse of human nature Disadvantages: Researcher bias: Researchers may hear and see what they want to; this is why it is important to have multiple observers and to use technology to give and objective perspective to the data. Cannot: Because the sample is so small, we cannot generalize to the population. A.3- Survey: Surveys can be used in descriptive research and in correlational research. Definition: In a survey, researchers are going to ask questions of a large sample of people because they’re interested in knowing the answers. Representative sample: It is impossible for researchers to survey every single person in the population of interest. This is why they extract a sample from the population of interest in order for the survey to be accepted by the scientific community, that sample must be representative. The characteristics of the sample must closely mirror the characteristics of the population. Why? We are using the sample to generalize to the population so it has to be representative; otherwise, if it cannot be generalized, it is not scientific. How? How do we get a representative sample? We get a representative sample by using random sampling. Random sampling: Random sampling follows two principal criteria: 1) Every single person in the population of interest has an equal chance to participate in the survey. 2) Chance and only chance will determine which person will participate in the survey. What doesn’t count as random sampling? Picking and choosing and volunteering. Simple random sample: We use random sampling to extract a sample from the population of interest. Stratified random sample: We take the population we are interested in and break it down into the different groups we are interested in. These groups are called strata. From each stratum we extract a sample using random sampling. Advantages: Cheap. Easy to administer. Includes people that are usually excluded from research (ex. People who are homebound, people who are illiterate, etc.): Sometimes it is the only way to know something. Disadvantages: Truth: Just because were asking and people are answering doesn’t mean we are getting the truth and an honest answer. People may lie for different reason, people may be confused, people may not trust you, etc. Easily: Surveys are easily influenced and affected by how you word the question and by the characteristics of the person asking the questions. A.4- Naturalistic Observation Definition: The researchers leave the lab and go to the natural world/real environment to do their research there (ex. Jane Goodall). A fundamental rule: The fundamental rule is that researchers must not interfere with what they are observing. They cannot manipulate anything; they just systematically observe. Advantages: It is as real as it can get. We’re watching real behaviour unfolding in real time in a real environment. Sometimes naturalistic observation is the only research we can do. Discovery: sometimes naturalistic observations allow discoveries that we may not discover otherwise. (ex. Elephant plant that induces labour) Disadvantages: Researcher bias Researchers may not interfere; however, the mere presence of the researchers could influence and affect the behaviours they are observing. Both humans and animals, when they notice they’re being observed, tend to change their behaviours; for this reason, researchers must blend in. Correlational Research: Purpose: Allows us to observe, describe, and make predications *see later*. Correlational research allows us to determine if there is a systematic and reliable relationship between 2 or more variables. We ask and answer three major questions while doing correlational research: Q1. Do the 2 variables co-vary (do they have a systematic relationship? If one variable changes, does the other variable change also)? Q2. If both variables covary, in what direction do they covary? There are 2 main types of correlations: Positive correlation: There is a systematic relationship between the two variables. When one of them changes, the other one changes also. Because it is a positive correlation, they change in the same direction (if one goes up, the other goes up). Negative correlation: There is a systematic and reliable relationship between the two variables. When one of them changes, the other one changes also. They change in opposite directions (if one goes up, the other goes down). Q.3. There is a correlation: How strong is the relationship to what extent? To answer all 3 questions, researchers turn to a statistic called the correlation coefficient (r ). The value of r varies between minus 1 and plus one (-1 0 +1). When r is 0, that means there is no correlation; the closer r is to 0, the weaker the relationship is. The closer r is to 1 (whether = or -), the stronger the relationship/correlation is. - = negative correlation / + = positive correlation. Ex. r = .13 vs. r = - .88 Advantages: Excellent first step: For example, doing an experiment can be very expensive, so before doing one it is important to find out if there is a systematic relation between the variables; we must do a correlational study first. If we to a correlational study and find there is a systematic relationship, then we do an experiment. If there is no systematic relationship, we don’t do an experiment. The only option: Sometimes correlational research is the only option we have to do the research ethically (ex. can’t give pregnant women alcohol to see the effects on the baby; use examples that already exist). Describe and predict: Once we know there is a correlation between 2 variables, if we are given information about one of them, we can make predictions about the other one with a certain degree of confidence. Take: Correlations allow us to take precautions and preventive actions. Disadvantages: Can: With correlational research you absolutely cannot draw conclusions about cause and effect. All you know is that there is a systematic correlational relationship. Cannot infer causality. Cannot: *Do not study correlation graphs from book before understanding notes and writings about the subject in the book; once you have grasped the concept, study the graphs in the book * C. Experimental research: C.1 Introduction: Experimental research allows us to observe, describe predict and explain. It is the only type of research that allows us to draw cause and effect conclusions. It is the only one that allows us to say, ‘variable A caused a change in variable B’. No other research allows me to make such a conclusion. Why? Experimental research allows us to manipulate the independent variable we are interested in studying. (*see later*) It allows us to control all other independent variables that we are not studying but could interfere with our results by causing a change in the dependent variable we are measuring. (*see later*) Independent variable (IV): It’s a variable that causes a change in another variable. It’s a variable that influences and affects another variable. It’s the variable that the researcher will either manipulate or control. Dependent variable (DV): It’s the variable that the researcher is measuring. It’s the variable that is being changed/influenced/affected by the independent variable. Experimental research can be done: In the lab Field experiment: In a field experiment the research interfere and manipulate the variables. They do not just observe. C.2 Manipulate the IV: The researchers are going to create at least two levels of the independent variable they are interested in. The researchers will create at least 2 groups in their study. The subjects in one of the groups will be exposed to the independent variable; this is the experimental group. The other group’s subjects will not be exposed to the independent variable; this is the controlled group. At the end of the study, researchers will compare the results to see if exposure to the independent variable changed the dependent variable. Ex. Drinking milk increases bone density. IV drinking milk. DV bone density. Make 2 groups of old women, one drinks milk the other no; then compare results. C.3 Control All Other IVs In experimental research, researchers must control all other independent variables that could interfere with the results. Theyre not interested in these variables, but they must control both known and unknown independent variables so that they don’t interfere with their results (*see later) Confounding variables: Variables that the researchers aren’t interested in studying; they are independent variables, but they can interfere in the results therefore the researchers must control them. If they don’t control confounding variables, they can never be sure what caused the change in their dependent variable and the results would be useless. Known IVs: Based on past research we know that IVs can change the DVs we are studying. (ex. eating cheese, lifting weights, etc. also increases bone density). Unknown IVs: There are also unknown confounding variables; we don’t know everything there is to know. There could be IVs that could affect our DV but we know nothing about them. We must control these as well. How do we control what we don’t know? : Random assignment: This is the best way to control unknown IVs. Two main points: Every single subject in the study has an equal chance of being either in the experimental group or the controlled group. Chance and only chance will determine which subject is in the controlled group and which subject is in the experimental group. Placebo effect: Inert: A placebo is a substance or a treatment that is inert. It has no therapeutic value whatsoever. It’s a fake psychological treatment. If were given a placebo without knowing that it’s a placebo, we may believe that it is a very effective treatment; we may end up feeling better based on this belief and this belief only. III – Making Sense of the Data (Section 2.7 in the book) Earn a point assignment: On your own, study subsections: 2.7.1 and 2.7.2 of the book. There is nothing to submit. Master this information and guaranteed there will be questions on the first midterm from those 2 subsections. You do not need to confirm this with me. The information is accurate. Subsection: 2.7.3 of the book: is not included on any of the exams, including the final. You do not need to confirm this with me :) It is not part of the course. Happy Learning :)