CGC1W1 Final Exam Prep Review Notes PDF

Plate Tectonics Earth’s Structure ​ In the early part of the 20th century, geologists studied the vibrations (seismic waves) generated by earthquakes to learn more about the structure of the earth's interior ​ The Earth is made up of four layers: ○​ Crust ​ Pretty h...

Plate Tectonics Earth’s Structure ​ In the early part of the 20th century, geologists studied the vibrations (seismic waves) generated by earthquakes to learn more about the structure of the earth's interior ​ The Earth is made up of four layers: ○​ Crust ​ Pretty hard ​ Earth’s outermost and thinnest layer ​ If the Earth was shrunk down to the size of a basketball, this layer would have the thickness of sheet of paper ​ About 5 km thick under the oceans ​ About 30 km thick under the continents ○​ Mantle ​ It is divided into two regions, i.e., upper and lower ​ Made of very hot, semisolid (liquidy) rock ​ Directly below the crust ​ About 2900 km thick ○​ Inner core ​ Very hot, solid sphere ​ Mostly made out of iron and nickel ​ At the centre of the Earth ​ About 1200 km in diameter ○​ Outer core ​ Liquid layer (only one) ​ “Sea” of mostly iron and nickel ​ Surrounds the inner core ​ In between the crust and mantle, there lies the ○​ Lithosphere ​ Made up of the crust and tiny bit of the upper mantle ​ This layer houses the tectonic plates ○​ Asthenosphere ​ Layer made up of hot, malleable semiliquid ​ Directly underneath the lithosphere ​ The lithosphere uses this malleable semiliquid to move (in a nutshell, that’s why the plates move) ​ Plate Tectonics ​ Alfred Wegener (the German scientist) found that coastlines of Africa and South America looked pretty similar  ​ He thought that the could fit together (almost like two puzzle pieces) ​ He discovered that the same animal and plant fossils were on the coastlines of these two continents ​ He also found that geological formations (landforms) matched up ​ In 1915, he published the book The Origin of Continents and Oceans ​ This said that Earth’s continents were once all one large mass ​ He called that “Pangaea”--the Greek word for all the Earth ​ This soon formed into the modern plate tectonics theory Plate Tectonics Theory ​ The border between two tectonic plates is a boundary ​ Every plate is always moving ​ There are three different types of plate boundaries ○​ Convergent ​ A convergent boundary occurs where two plates are pushing toward each other ​ ○​ Divergent ​ A divergent boundary marks two plates that are moving apart from each other ​ ○​ Transform ​ A transform boundary occurs where two plates slide past each other ​ Subduction ​ Subduction is a geological process where one tectonic plate is forced beneath another. This occurs at a convergent boundary, where two tectonic plates move towards each other. ​ Here's a breakdown of what happens during subduction: 1.​ Convergence: Two tectonic plates move towards each other. 2.​ One plate descends: One of the plates, usually the denser oceanic plate, is forced beneath the other plate. The descending plate is called the subducting plate. 3.​ Trench formation: As the subducting plate descends into the mantle, it creates a deep ocean trench. 4.​ Magma generation: The high pressure and temperature caused by the subducting plate can melt the surrounding rock, creating magma. 5.​ Volcano formation: The magma rises to the surface, often forming volcanoes along the edge of the overriding plate. 6.​ Earthquake activity: The movement of the subducting plate can cause earthquakes, especially near the subduction zone.  7.​ Mountain building: Over millions of years, the accumulation of sediments and volcanic material along the edge of the overriding plate can lead to the formation of mountain ranges. Slip, Slide, and Collide ​ At convergent boundaries, an oceanic plate and a continental plate collide. ​ Oceanic crust is denser and thinner than continental crust. ​ Due to its higher density, the oceanic crust bends and is pulled under (subducted) beneath the lighter and thicker continental crust. ​ The area where subduction occurs is called a subduction zone. ​ As the oceanic crust sinks, it creates a deep oceanic trench (valley) at the edge of the continent. ​ The sinking oceanic crust is subjected to high heat and pressure as it moves deeper into the Earth. ​ Heat and pressure cause trapped water and gases in the oceanic crust to be released. ​ The release of water and gases lowers the melting point of the surrounding materials, causing the base of the crust to melt and form magma ​ Magma formed at subduction zones rises toward the Earth's surface and accumulates in magma chambers. ​ Magma in these chambers feeds and creates volcanoes on the overriding plate. ​ When magma reaches the surface through a vent in the crust, the volcano erupts, expelling lava and ash. ​ An example is the Ring of Fire, a band of active volcanoes encircling the Pacific Ocean. ​ Subduction zones also form when two oceanic plates collide, with the older plate being forced beneath the younger one. ​ This process creates chains of volcanic islands, known as island arcs. ​ Examples of island arcs include the Mariana Islands in the western Pacific Ocean and the Aleutian Islands off Alaska's coast. ​ Plate collisions and subduction are not smooth processes, leading to powerful earthquakes. ​ Earthquakes in subduction zones can trigger tsunamis, massive ocean waves caused by sudden shifts on the ocean floor. ​ If a tsunami reaches land, it can cause widespread destruction. ​ A notable example is the Asian Tsunami of December 2004, which killed over 200,000 people across 11 countries in the Indian Ocean region. ​ When two continental plates collide, their lighter and less dense rock prevents subduction. ​ Instead, the collision crunches and folds the rock at the boundary, lifting it upward. ​ This process forms mountains and mountain ranges. ​ Sliding is when plates are moving in opposite directions of each other  ​ Formation of Canada ​ There are four main eras the World has gone through ○​ Precambrian ​ This is when Canada’s landmass started ​ Volcanoes underwater push magma to the surface ​ ○​ Paleozoic ​ This is when the climate begins to erode igneous rock ​ Sediments are then deposited on the seafloor ​ ○​ Mesozoic ​ Erosion and faulting cause landmass to shift and bend  ​ ○​ Cenozoic ​ Canada’s physical characteristics take shape (e.g., Interior Plains, Canadian Shield, the Rockies) ​ Ring of Fire ​ Encircles the edges of the Pacific Ocean basin, spanning about 40,000 kilometers (25,000 miles). ​ Includes regions along the coasts of North and South America, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific Islands. ​ Countries in the Ring of Fire: United States (Alaska), Canada, Mexico, Chile, Japan, Indonesia, and New Zealand. ​ Located at the boundaries of major tectonic plates, such as the Pacific Plate, North American Plate, Eurasian Plate, and Indo-Australian Plate. ​ Plate boundaries are primarily convergent (colliding plates) or transform (plates sliding past each other), causing high geological activity. ​ Contains 75% of the world's active and dormant volcanoes. ​ Famous volcanoes include Mount Fuji (Japan), Krakatoa (Indonesia), and Mount St. Helens (USA). ​ Hotspot for frequent and powerful earthquakes due to subduction zones where plates are forced under each other. ​ These subduction zones cause stress and seismic activity, leading to earthquakes and tsunamis. ​ Key Features ​ Subduction Zones: Areas where oceanic plates sink beneath continental plates, forming trenches like the Mariana Trench (Earth’s deepest point). ​ Volcanic Arcs: Chains of volcanoes formed above subduction zones, such as the Aleutian Islands (Alaska). ​ Transform Faults: Fractures where plates slide laterally, such as the San Andreas Fault (California). ​ Drives Earth's geological evolution, shaping landscapes and influencing climate over millions of years.  ​ Poses risks such as volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, and earthquakes, affecting millions of people living in the region. The Rock Cycle 1.​ Formation of Igneous Rocks ​ Rocks form when magma (molten rock inside the Earth) or lava (molten rock on the surface) cools and solidifies. 2.​ Weathering and Erosion ​ Weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces (sediments) through physical, chemical, or biological means. 3.​ Deposition and Sedimentary Rock Formation ​ Sediments are deposited in layers, often in bodies of water. Over time, pressure from overlying layers compresses these sediments into sedimentary rocks. 4.​ Burial and Heat/Pressure (Metamorphism) ​ Sedimentary or igneous rocks are buried deep in the Earth's crust, where heat and pressure cause physical and chemical changes. ​ This transforms them into metamorphic rocks. 5.​ Melting into Magma ​ Metamorphic or other rocks melt when subjected to extreme heat, forming magma deep within the Earth. 6.​ Recycling Back to Igneous Rock ​ The magma cools and solidifies, completing the cycle by forming new igneous rock. Landforms Landform Regions ​ In Canada, there’s 7 landform regions, all located in different areas around the country ○​ Arctic Lands ​ Located in the northern parts of Nunavut, Yukon, and the Northwest Territories ​ The Arctic Lands have islands, glaciers, treeless tundra, and permafrost. ​ It has a continental climate ​ The natural resources found here are ancient coal, zinc, minerals, nickel, copper, diamonds, and gold ○​ Cordillera ​ Located in the western British Columbia and Yukon, as well as the western Northwest Territories and southwestern Alberta ​ Cordillera has glacial lakes, mountains, fertile valleys, and sleeping volcanoes ​ It has a warm and wet climate ​ The natural resources in Cordillera are Copper, lead, zinc, and iron ore ○​ Interior Plains ​ Located in most of Alberta, Saskatchewan, the southern areas of Manitoba, and some of the Northwest Territories and British Columbia ​ The interior Plains have flat grasslands and isolated plateaus, northern forests, and long, winding rivers  ​ It has really cold winters and exceedingly hot summers ​ The natural resources found here are minerals, oil, natural gas, and coal ○​ Hudson Bay Lowlands ​ Located in between the Canadian Shield and the waters of Hudson and James bays. ​ The Hudson Bay Lowlands have wetland, soil is of poor quality, the upper half is almost all frozen ​ It’s a freezing cold wetland ​ The natural resources found here are natural gas, peat, copper, zinc, gold, nickel ○​ Canadian Shield ​ A U shape all around Canada, mostly on the eastern side ​ The Canadian shield is U shaped, rocky, green, mountainous ​ It’s cold, dry climate ​ The natural resources found here are nickel, gold, and silver ○​ St. Lawrence Lowlands ​ Located in between the Canadian Shield to the north and the Appalachian Region to the east ​ The St. Lawrence Lowlands has a flat, fertile terrain and an abundance of freshwater resources ​ It has a humid climate ​ The natural resources found here are iron ore, zinc, silver, coal, copper and lead ○​ Appalachian Uplands​ ​ The most eastern landform ​ The Appalachian Uplands has a Diverse landscape of low-range mountains, long ridges, deep valleys, and mixed forests ​ It’s mostly grasslands and forestry ​ The natural resources found here are minerals, timber, and coal Glaciation ​ Glaciers have significantly shaped landscapes in middle and high latitudes as well as alpine environments. ​ They can ○​ Erode soil and rock. ○​ Transport sediment. ○​ Deposit sediment. ​ During the last glacial period, glaciers geomorphically influenced over 50 million square kilometers of the Earth's land surface. ​ A moraine is A mass of rocks and sediment carried down and deposited by a glacier, typically as ridges at its edges. ​ Plucking is how rocks are dislodged from the surface and dragged by the ice flow ​ Scientists say that sea level is rising 1.5mm each year ​ Glaciers and ice sheets cover 11% of all land ​ Warming water expands, therefore raising the sea level ​ 75% of all freshwater is in glaciers and ice sheets ​ Canadian Arctic contain about 130,000 km² of glaciers and ice caps ​  Natural Disasters ​ There are 2 types of natural disasters ○​ Geological is a natural disaster due to Earth’s geologic disturbances, caused by shifts in tectonic plates and seismic activity ○​ Meteorological/hydrological natural disasters are caused by extreme weather (rain and wind). ​ 75% of the world’s damages ($, damage to infrastructure, economic losses, casualties, etc.) are from meteorological/hydrological disasters ​ ​ Preparedness devices (to see if a natural disaster is coming) ○​ Seismometers (measure earthquakes) ○​ Tiltmeters (volcanoes swell) ○​ Monitoring gases from robot satellites ○​ Measuring temperature of volcano (hotter when about to erupt) ○​ Studying past history of eruptions ​ Earthquakes ​ Earthquakes occur on all seven continents. ​ Most quakes happen in three key regions: ○​ Mid-Atlantic Ridge: An underwater ridge in the Atlantic Ocean. ○​ Alpide Belt: Spans from the Mediterranean to Southeast Asia. ○​ Circum-Pacific Belt (Ring of Fire): Surrounds the Pacific Ocean, accounting for 80% of all earthquakes. ​ Earthquakes result from extreme stress in the Earth's crust. ​ Sources of stress include: ○​ Tectonic plate movement (most common cause). ○​ Volcanic activity. ○​ Man-made activities (e.g., mining, reservoir-induced seismicity). ​ Tectonic plates:  ○​ Constantly move against, away, along, or beneath each other. ○​ Edges may stick while plates attempt to move, building pressure. ○​ Release of built-up energy when plates slip causes fractures in the crust and emits shockwaves. ​ Seismographs record ground motion as jagged lines, reflecting earthquake intensity. ​ Moment Magnitude Scale (Mw): ○​ Preferred by seismologists for global application. ○​ Measures earthquakes logarithmically (each magnitude is 10 times stronger than the previous). ○​ Replaced the outdated Richter Scale. ​ Notable Earthquake: Valdivia, 1960 ○​ Location: Near Bolivia, Chile, in the Circum-Pacific Belt. ○​ Magnitude: 9.5, the largest recorded earthquake. ○​ Effects: ​ Massive tremors and an 80-foot tsunami. ​ Tsunami reached distant countries, including the Philippines and Japan. ​ Shockwaves shook the Earth for days. ​ Earthquake Preparedness and Adaptation ​ Structural designs: Buildings and bridges are made to sway instead of breaking. ​ Public education: Communities are trained on earthquake safety measures. ​ Drills: Governments organize drills to ensure readiness during seismic events. ​ While earthquakes cause devastation, they also shape the Earth’s landscape. ​ They create significant geological features, adding to the planet's unique character. ​ Tsunamis ○​ Tsunamis are giant waves caused by a sudden displacement of ocean water. ○​ Triggers include (caused by) ​ Earthquakes (most common). ​ Volcanic eruptions. ​ Landslides. ​ Meteorite impacts. ○​ In the deep ocean: ​ Tsunami waves are barely noticeable. ​ They can travel up to 600 mph. ○​ Near the shore: ​ Waves slow down due to friction with the shallower ocean floor. ​ Wave height can reach up to 100 feet. ​ Unlike ordinary waves, tsunamis move forward as a solid wall of water, causing widespread destruction. ○​ Tsunami waves: ​ Recede after hitting the shore, dragging debris and people back into the ocean.  ​ Often consist of multiple waves that can strike for hours, amplifying destruction. ○​ Tsunamis obliterate coastal infrastructure, including buildings, vehicles, and communities. ○​ Preparedness and Monitoring ​ Tsunami Warning Centers: ​ Monitor underwater earthquakes capable of triggering tsunamis. ​ Aim to alert vulnerable coastlines and provide time for residents to evacuate. ○​ Key safety measures: ​ Education on seeking higher ground immediately after a warning. ​ Awareness of the potential for multiple waves over several hours. ​ Tornadoes ○​ Tornadoes are spinning columns of air stretching from the ground to the clouds. ○​ Most are weak, but large tornadoes are extremely violent and destructive. ○​ Occur on six of seven continents. ○​ Types of Tornadoes ​ Supercell Tornadoes: ​ Form within supercell thunderstorms, the most powerful type of storm. ​ Tend to be larger and more destructive. ​ Warm, low-pressure air rises to higher altitudes, leaving cool, high-pressure air below. ​ Wind rolls horizontally along the ground, forming a pipe of wind. ​ An updraft lifts the rolling wind pipe into a vertical position, forming the tornado. ​ Non-Supercell Tornadoes: ​ Includes waterspouts and landspouts. ​ Smaller, weaker, and form within less powerful storms. ​ Cool, high-pressure air meets warm, low-pressure air near ground level. ​ Winds blow cyclically, forming an upright spinning vortex. ○​ Requires both high-pressure and low-pressure air in a region. ○​ Air movement: High-pressure air moves toward low-pressure areas, creating wind. ○​ Tornado Classification: Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale ○​ Ranges from EF0 to EF5, based on damage and wind speeds. ​ EF0: Weakest, 65–85 mph winds. ​ EF5: Strongest, >200 mph winds. ○​ Example: ​ 1999 Oklahoma City EF5 Tornado: ​ Wind speeds >300 mph. ​ Caused 36 fatalities, ~600 injuries, and $1 billion in damages. ​ Tornado Safety and Monitoring ○​ Meteorologists monitor storm fronts in high-risk areas. ○​ Early forecasts and warnings help reduce damage and save lives.  ○​ While tornadoes cannot be prevented, preparedness and monitoring are crucial. ○​ Tornadoes begin as invisible air currents but grow into destructive forces. ○​ Supercell tornadoes pull condensation into their vortex, becoming visible. ○​ Tornadoes remain one of nature’s most formidable phenomena ​ Volcanoes ○​ Introduction ​ Volcanoes act as portals into the Earth's interior. ​ Fueled by molten rock from deep beneath the surface. ○​ Location of Volcanoes ​ Found worldwide, both on land and the ocean floor. ​ Most volcanoes occur at tectonic plate boundaries. ​ Ring of Fire: Contains 75% of the planet's volcanoes. ○​ Types of Volcanoes ​ Stratovolcanoes: Tall, steep mountains. ​ Shield Volcanoes: Broad, dome-shaped structures. ​ Calderas: Large ground depressions. ​ Mid-Ocean Ridges: Underwater volcanic mountain chains. ○​ Formation and Eruption ​ Magma forms in the mantle from heat transferred by the Earth's core. ​ Magma rises through the mantle due to being lighter than solid rock. ​ Escapes through crustal vents to cause eruptions. ​ Magma becomes lava when it reaches the surface (temperature over 2,000°F). ○​ Eruption Features ​ Pyroclastic Flow: Hot gas and ash move at speeds up to 100 mph, destroying everything in their path. ○​ Measuring Eruptions ​ Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): ​ Measures eruption size based on lava, gas, and eruption cloud height. ​ Logarithmic scale: Each level is 10x stronger than the previous. ​ Largest eruptions (VEI 8) occurred thousands or millions of years ago. ○​ Notable Eruption: Mount Tambora (1815) ​ Location: Indonesia. ​ Type: Stratovolcano with a VEI of 7. ​ Consequences: Earthquakes, tsunamis, pyroclastic flows. ​ Tens of thousands of deaths. ​ Summit destroyed, forming a 3,640-foot-deep caldera. ○​ Benefits of Volcanoes ​ Volcanic ash enriches soil, making it fertile. ​ Lava cools to form rock, creating new landforms. ○​ Impact on Earth ​ Volcanoes shape the Earth's landscape. ​ Harness heat from the Earth's core to transform the planet. ​ Hurricanes ○​ General Overview  ​ Cyclone, typhoon, and hurricane are different names for the same type of powerful storm. ​ Hurricanes are unpredictable but well-studied by scientists. ​ Peak hurricane season in the Atlantic occurs during late summer when tropical waters are warmest. ○​ Formation Process ​ Hurricanes form from clusters of thunderstorms. ​ Warm, moist air is sucked into the atmosphere and converted into energy. ​ Energy powers circular winds that spin around a low-pressure center called the eye. ​ Eye: A calm region with a 20–30 mile radius. ​ Eye wall: A towering ring of clouds with the strongest winds. ​ Rainbands: Curved cloud bands releasing rain and occasionally tornadoes. ○​ Classification ​ A storm becomes a hurricane when winds reach 74 mph. ​ Hurricanes are ranked on the Saffir-Simpson Scale (Categories 1–5) based on wind speed and potential damage. ○​ Dangers ​ Wind speed is not always the most hazardous factor. ​ Storm surge: ​ Caused by hurricane winds pushing seawater toward the coast. ​ Can rise up to 20 feet above sea level and extend 100 miles inland. ​ Responsible for 90% of hurricane deaths. ○​ Role in the Ecosystem ​ Hurricanes redistribute heat energy from the equator to the poles. ​ This process helps stabilize the Earth's temperature. ○​ Advancements and Preparedness ​ Improved scientific understanding has enhanced hurricane tracking and prediction. ​ Early warning systems save lives. ​ Better infrastructure reduces damage and protects cities. Preparedness ​ General Preparedness Steps ○​ Understand Risks: Identify common natural disasters in your area (e.g., hurricanes, earthquakes, floods). ○​ Create an Emergency Plan: ​ Establish evacuation routes and meeting points. ​ Identify safe rooms or shelters. ​ Include communication plans for family or group members. ○​ Build an Emergency Kit: ​ Water (1 gallon per person per day for at least 3 days). ​ Non-perishable food, flashlight, batteries, and first aid supplies.  ​ Medications, personal hygiene items, and important documents. ​ Early Warning Systems ○​ Subscribe to alerts (e.g., weather apps, local government notifications). ○​ Learn to recognize warning signs (e.g., sirens, evacuation orders, changes in weather). ​ Infrastructure Preparedness ○​ Strengthen buildings to withstand disasters (e.g., earthquake retrofitting, hurricane shutters). ○​ Build levees, dams, or seawalls to mitigate flooding. ○​ Improve drainage systems to handle heavy rain. ​ Community Preparedness ○​ Participate in community drills and training programs. ○​ Collaborate with neighbors to support each other during emergencies. ○​ Know local shelters and emergency services. ​ Financial Preparedness ○​ Purchase appropriate insurance (e.g., flood, earthquake, or windstorm insurance). ○​ Keep cash and financial records easily accessible. ​ Education and Awareness ○​ Learn survival skills (e.g., first aid, CPR, fire safety). ○​ Stay informed about the types of disasters that occur locally. ○​ Teach children about safety protocols and emergency contacts. ​ Special Considerations ○​ Plan for vulnerable populations (elderly, disabled, or pets). ○​ Prepare backup power sources for medical devices or communication tools. ​ Post-Disaster Recovery ○​ Create a recovery plan (e.g., assessing damage, contacting insurance, seeking assistance). ○​ Stay updated on relief efforts and follow government guidelines. Soil ​ Soil is one of the most important natural resources in the world for many different reasons ○​ These reasons include ​ Growing food and/or crops ​ Source of raw materials ​ Soaks up rainwater ​ Plants for animals to eat ​ Many animals/insects live in soil Soil Components ​ There are 4 main components in soil ○​ Minerals ​ Nutrients needed to grow plants ​ Calcium  ​ Phosphorus ​ Potassium ​ Minerals are gained through weathering (breaking down) the soil into smaller pieces such as ​ Sand ​ Silt ​ Clay ○​ Organic Material & Bacteria ​ Dead organisms (things that have lived or are living) ​ When plants and animals die they are decomposed (broken down) by bacteria in the soil ​ Decaying organic materials form humus, which provides nutrients and moisture for plants ○​ Moisture ​ Water dissolves nutrients and is absorbed by the roots of plants. ​ Water also assists in the decay of organic material ○​ Air ​ Plants need air mostly around their roots and within 30cm of the surface ​ Lots of loose humus near their roots allows for lots of air spaces ​ Air spaces are also created by worms and ants and other insects and small animals which tunnel through the soil Climate Weather vs. Climate ​ Weather ○​ Weather is the short-term state of the atmosphere ○​ It can change within a short period of time ○​ Examples: rain, snow, thunder, sunny, etc. ​ Climate ○​ Long-term pattern of weather ○​ It’s essentially the average weather over many years in a specific place ○​ Examples: tropical climate, polar, wet, etc. ​ There are six factors that affect climate ​ These can be remembered with the mnemonic “LOWER and Near Water” ○​ Latitude ​ The further away from the equator, the colder it gets. ○​ Ocean Current ​ The temperature of a nearby ocean current affects the temperature of the city. ​ Cities on the coasts next to the warm Alaskan or Gulf Stream currents are warmer than they would be otherwise. ​ Cities on the coast near the cold Labrador current are colder than they would be otherwise. ​ Where cold and warm currents meet = stormy! ○​ Wind  ​ Depending on the type of air mass, temperature and precipitation levels are affected. ​ Winds can move cool air to moderate a hot area, or moist air to bring rain to a dry area. ​ ○​ Elevation ​ The higher the elevation, the colder it gets ​ At higher elevations, the air is less dense and therefore less able to absorb heat. ​ At lower elevations, the air is more dense and therefore more able to absorb heat. ​ ○​ Relief ​ Lots of precipitation on the windward side, little precipitation on the leeward side of tall mountains like the Rocky Mountains. ​ In the Northern Hemisphere, weather generally comes from the west and goes to the east, making the west side of mountains the windward side and the east side of mountains the leeward side. ​ This factor does NOT apply to smaller mountains like the Appalachians or Innuitians. ○​ Near Water ​ Temperatures are moderated near large water bodies; temperatures are extreme far away from large water bodies ​ Temperatures are moderated near large water bodies; temperatures are extreme far away from large water bodies ​ Therefore, coastal/maritime areas have a lower temperature range than those that are inland/continental.