Operating Systems and Networking (C227) AY2025 Slides - PDF

Academic use Apr 2025 Operating Systems and Networking (C227) AY2025 Sem 1 (Formerly Known as C227 Computer System Technologies)  Academic use Module Introduction Welcome to C227...

Academic use Apr 2025 Operating Systems and Networking (C227) AY2025 Sem 1 (Formerly Known as C227 Computer System Technologies)  Academic use Module Introduction Welcome to C227 Refer to module introduction slides. Your Lecturer will brief you on the module related information.  Academic use Week 1 Lesson 1 Build me a computer  Academic use Introduction :  Academic use Simple Machines Recall your primary school education. You would have covered the uses of these simple machines. Humans have used these to build more and more complex machines. There are six simple machines: inclined planes, levers, wheel and axles, pullies, wedges, and screws.  Academic use Humans, Tools and Machines Humans have been used these simple machine for as long as we can remember. We have used them as tools to help us build things deemed impossible by hand and also structures which stand the test of time. These tools still required much manual labour. The amount of output linearly related to the number of hours put in by workers. Imagine the labour would be needed to fit the estimated 2.3 million blocks each weighing 2 Tons for the great pyramids.  Academic use Age of Industry The Industrial Age is a period of history that encompasses the changes in economic and social organization that began around 1760 in Great Britain and later in other countries, characterized chiefly by the replacement of hand tools with power-driven machines such as the power loom and the steam engine, and by the concentration of industry in large establishments. The term Industrial Revolution refers to the process of change in modern history from a farming and handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacturing. As industry develops, their technological breakthroughs are classified into distinct development phases.  Academic use Background : Industrial Revolution Industry refers to the production of goods and services by transforming raw materials into valuable products. It includes manufacturing, processing, assembly, packaging, and distribution. Industries have historically driven economic growth, job creation, technological advancements, and improved living standards. Over time, significant transformations in the industrial sector have been known as "Industrial Revolutions."  Academic use Industry 1.0 and 2.0 Industry 1.0: The Birth of the Industrial Revolution : Occurred during 1760-1840 and was driven by mechanization, steam power, and the rise of factories, transforming agriculture and manufacturing. Industry 2.0: Mass Production : Occurred during late 19th to early 20th century, it was a period of rapid industrial growth driven by advancements in steel production, electricity, chemical manufacturing, and mass production, leading to increased urbanization and global economic expansion.  Academic use Industry 3.0 and 4.0 Industry 3.0: Digital Revolution Starting in the 1950s, was driven by the rise of digital technology, automation, and the internet, leading to a shift from mechanical and analog systems to computerized and networked processes in manufacturing and communication. This marked the start of the computer age. Industry 4.0: Cyber-Physical Revolution Starting n the 2010s, it integrates advanced technologies like artificial intelligence, robotics, the Internet of Things (IoT), and biotechnology, creating smart, interconnected systems that blur the lines between physical, digital, and biological domains.  Academic use The Future : Industry 5.0 and 6.0 Industry 5.0: Collaborative Revolution It focuses on enhancing collaboration between humans and advanced technologies like AI and robotics, emphasizing personalization, sustainability, and human well-being rather than just automation and efficiency. Industry 6.0: The future it could involve advanced fusion of digital, biological, and ecological systems, with a strong emphasis on environmental sustainability, global interconnectedness, and mind-machine integration. This future phase might explore quantum computing, human augmentation, and eco-centric innovations to address global challenges while enhancing human capabilities. Academic use Academic use  Academic use Activity – 10 mins (Worksheet Q4,5) Introduce yourselves to each other, breakout into your teams and discuss where we are at now. Are we in Industry 4.0 or Industry 5.0 from what you know? Also, what are the major technologies which you think are related to computing in use and give some examples to support your claim? Do post your answers in the class Teams using the whiteboard tab. Do use the add note function to post. Academic use  Academic use Industry 4.0 technologies 1. Internet of Things (IoT) using smart sensors and devices information gathering, eg in factories for predictive maintenance. 2. Artificial Intelligence (AI) & Machine Learning (ML) - for AI-driven automation and ML for optimization 3. Big Data & Analytics - for real-time insights and smart decision-making. 4. Cloud Computing & Edge Computing - Tiered cloud computing model for faster, localized data processing. 5. 5G & Advanced Connectivity - Ultra-fast, low-latency communication supporting IoT devices. 6. Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) - Allows remote monitoring and control of industrial processes implementing operational technology. 7. Robotics & Automation - Use of Autonomous systems for repetitive tasks without human intervention  Academic use Industry 4.0 technologies 8. Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing) - Custom, on-demand manufacturing 9. Digital Twin - Virtual replicas of physical assets for real-time simulation, helping in process optimization. 10. Blockchain Technology - Used in all industries for secure and transparent tracking/transactions. 11. Cybersecurity & Smart Protection Systems - As industries become more connected, AI driven cybersecurity measures protect against cyber threats 12. Augmented Reality (AR) & Virtual Reality (VR) - AR/VR enhances training, remote maintenance, and real-time visualization of industrial processes to help workers work better. These technologies are revolutionizing manufacturing, supply chains, and industrial operations by making them smarter, more efficient, and highly automated Academic use  Academic use Industry 5.0 technologies 1. Human-Robot Collaboration (Cobots) - Unlike fully automated systems, collaborative robots (cobots) work alongside humans to enhance efficiency and safety. Example: Smart exoskeletons for workers to reduce fatigue 2. Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning - AI and ML help optimize decision-making, quality control, and predictive maintenance. Example: AI- driven quality inspection in manufacturing. 3. Extended Reality (XR) – AR, VR, MR - Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR), and Mixed Reality (MR) enhance training, remote assistance, and real-time visualization. Example: AR-assisted assembly instructions for workers. 4. Digital Twin Technology - Digital twins create virtual replicas of physical systems, enabling simulation, testing, and optimization in real time. Example: A digital twin of a factory for predictive maintenance.  Academic use Industry 5.0 technologies 5. Edge & Quantum Computing - Edge computing reduces latency by processing data closer to the source, while quantum computing accelerates complex problem-solving. Example: Edge AI for real-time production monitoring. 6. 5G and Advanced Connectivity - Ultra-reliable, low-latency communication (>1msec) (URLLC) from 5G enables seamless integration of smart devices and autonomous systems. Example: Autonomous connected driving vehicles. 7. Biotechnology & Bionic Enhancements - Integration of biological and digital systems, including brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) and bioengineered materials. Example: AI-powered prosthetic limbs. 8. Sustainable & Green Technologies - Energy-efficient production, carbon- neutral factories, and circular economy principles are central to Industry 5.0. Example: AI-driven energy optimization in industrial plants.  Academic use Industry 5.0 technologies 9. Hyper-Personalization & Mass Customization - AI and automation enable individualized products at scale without significant cost increases. Example: 3D- printed custom medical implants. 10. Cybersecurity & Blockchain - Enhanced cybersecurity frameworks and lockchain ensure data integrity, privacy, and secure supply chains. Example: Blockchain-based supply chain tracking.  Academic use Where we are now As of now, we are still in the midst of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, characterized by the integration of digital, biological, and physical technologies. As we move further into the year 2025, the global landscape is increasingly shaped by the fifth industrial revolution, a transformative era marked by the convergence of digital, biological, and physical innovations. This revolution is redefining industries and reshaping our future in profound ways The use of artificial intelligence, robotics, Internet of Things (IoT) and biotechnology, creating smart, interconnected systems that blur the lines between physical, digital, and biological domain. All of these technologies require computing resources.  Academic use How Industry 4.0 differs from Industry 5.0 Feature Industry 4.0 Industry 5.0 Focus Automation, IoT, AI Human-machine collaboration, sustainability Key Players Machines & AI Humans & AI working together Customization Mass production with Mass personalization automation with AI Sustainability Efficiency-focused Human-centric & eco- friendly  Academic use Evolution of Computing  Academic use Mechanical calculators Humans have always needed to work with Abacus numbers. 2700-2300 B.C. Formulas came out first which needed calculations. used till present day (How was the below formula used?) To help humans with calculations, these systems relied on moving parts to perform calculations. Would you classify these as systems as computers? Slide Rule , used in 1620 – 1970, including the apollo space missions!  Academic use Mechanical computers Essentially, computing is the systematic processing of information through algorithms, utilizing a combination of hardware and software to execute tasks. As requirements became more complex, a simple calculator was not enough as it could only perform basic arithmetic functions. Charles Babbage proposed (but did not build ) the first digital mechanical general- purpose computer which could be programmed with punch cards. It was operated using precision engineered gear, rods, ratchets, and pinions Difference engine Charles Babbage (1791-1871)  Academic use Electro-Mechanical computers Computing moved from mechanical systems to electrical systems between industry 2.0 and 3.0. The Harvard Mark 1 electo-mechanical calculator was built from switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches. It used 765,000 electromechanical components and hundreds of miles of wire, comprising a volume of 816 cubic feet (23 m3) – 51 feet (16 m) in length, 8 feet (2.4 m) in height, and 2 feet (0.61 m) deep. It weighed about 9,445 pounds (4.7 short tons; 4.3 t). The basic calculating units had to be synchronized and powered mechanically, so they were operated by a 50-foot (15 m) drive shaft coupled to a 5 horsepower (3.7 kW) electric motor, which served as the main power source and system clock. Harvard Mark I (1944) It was programmed by punching holes in the paper or tape to Punch Card output represent instructions and data. The machine would then output the answers to the problems on a punched card or teletypewriter. It was used during World War II to help design radar, torpedoes, and camera lenses. It was also used in the Manhattan Project to calculate detonation options for the atomic bomb. What is the difference between this and the previous devices?  Academic use Electro-Mechanical computers In WW2, Nazi Germany was able to communicate with each other using the enigma machine where messages were encrypted. One of the key motivation of computing was to aid the wartime effort. In the next video – watch as renowned British computer scientist and founder of modern computing Alan Turing uses an electo-mechanical machine named “Bombe” to break Nazi encryption. By cracking the enigma cipher, it accelerated Nazi losses and ended the war earlier. (PS – What was the name of this movie? ) German Enigma Machine Academic use  Academic use The microelectronic revolution : Relays and Vacuum Tubes These devices on the left essentially performed the same task of storing electrical state. ( 1s and 0s - On / Off ) Relays were used in early computers to perform logical operations and pass on information. Relays allow current flow in one circuit to be controlled by passing a current in another. They used electromagnets and metal strips to conduct electricity and turn on a switch. Relays are inherently binary in their operation, meaning they can be used to build digital logic. Vacuum tubes were significantly faster at switching electrical signals due to their lack of moving parts, significantly smaller, more reliable, used much less power, and had a longer lifespan, allowing for the creation of smaller, faster, and more efficient computers compared to the bulky and power-hungry relay systems. How many permutations do we have given 4 switches?  Academic use The microelectronic revolution : the invention of Transistors They allowed for much higher computing speeds compared to the slower mechanical switching of relays; essentially, vacuum tubes could switch on and off thousands of times per second while relays could only manage a few hundred at best The invention of the transistor was significant because it revolutionized the field of electronics by enabling smaller, more efficient, and reliable electronic devices, paving the way for the development of modern computers, calculators, radios, and essentially all modern electronic technology, as transistors replaced bulky and power-hungry vacuum tubes, leading to a miniaturization of electronics and the rise of the Information Age. Did you know - The latest Intel i9 processor has a transistor count of about 4.2 billion whilst the M1 Max is about 57 billion !  Academic use The first fully electrical computers The ENIAC was built on vacuum tubes, as they are a type of non-mechanical switch that can change positions much more quickly than a mechanical one. The first fully electrical programmable computer ENIAC 1946 , was operated by 6 women programmers who used it for the war effort The ENIAC used an IBM card reader for input and an IBM card punch machine for output. To change the program, programmers had to rewire the machine's data paths. This process could take days and involved creating and verifying physical connections. Calculations were performed using electronic circuits. Results were displayed using lights and switches. https://penntoday.upenn.edu/news/worlds-first-general-purpose-computer-turns-75  Academic use The modern computer and its operating system We have come a long way in the industrial revolution which commoditized (made cheaply) the components used in computers. From the earliest computers, which had inputs and outputs, similarly we also need to interact with the computer. Instead of connecting wires and operating switches to program the computer to instruct it what to do, we need to have a way to interact with every computer. The software that bridges the interaction between the hardware and the human operator would be known as the operating system. https://penntoday.upenn.edu/news/worlds-first-general-purpose-computer-turns-75  Academic use Computers How are information represented in computers? Academic use  Academic use How is data represented on a computer? It is called “Binary Language” Computers convert all the text, images and videos into the 1s & 0s format to understand it  Academic use Representing Values – Binary Transistors represent binary data by acting like tiny switches that can be either "on" or "off," where "on" represents a binary "1" and "off" represents a binary "0“ Given we have 4 transistors, we are able to represent the following values in the table. The transistors are grouped by 4, in order to represent a value. You would have covered the binary number format (Base2 numbers) What you learnt in primary school was Base10 numbers. In computing, both binary and hexadecimal (Base 16) numbers are widely used. Each switch can be considered 1 bit. 8 of these switches together is considered as 1 Byte – a unit of digital information, used to represent a number or alphabet.  Academic use Try out this binary conversion game! Binary to Decimal Decimal to Binary https://learningcontent.cisco.com/games/binary/index.ht  Academic use Week 1 Lesson 2  Academic use Modern Computers Academic use Academic use  Academic use Activity – 10 mins (Worksheet Q12) What makes a computer a computer? List down what should a computer have? Do post your answers in the class Teams using the whiteboard tab. Do use the add note function to post.  Academic use Test your knowledge! : Kahoot Quiz - C227 - Computers and Technology  Academic use What makes a modern computer? What are the different types of computers ? How are the components of a computer arranged? Given a choice – which one would you choose? Vote this in the poll created by your lecturer in MS Teams.  Academic use What is the purpose of a computer? A computer system is one that is able to take a set of inputs, process them, create a set of outputs and store them for further processing. The 4 major functions of a computer system Input - to get data for processing (e.g. from Keyboard) Process – process the data (e.g. add 2 numbers) Output – send the result (e.g. display on a screen) Store – store the result (e.g. for further processing) For processing to take place, there needs to be a set of instructions called a program. You can think of programs as the individual building blocks of software. Software is the overarching term for the collection of programs and other data that makes a computer function. Academic use  Academic use What are the major hardware components in a computer? Recall from last lesson - the first electrical computers, they were designed in a way with all the components for it to perform as fast as possible. Computer hardware are the physical components that a computer system requires to function. Mathematician and physicist John von Neumann first described the way the components work in 1945 in a computer architecture based on the EDVAC programmable computer with storage. (ENIAC's successor) Modern computers still largely are based on this design.  Academic use Traditional Von Neumann Architecture The Von Neumann Architecture is a computer design model where data and instructions share the same memory and are processed sequentially. It consists of five major components: Central Processing Unit (CPU) Consisting of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU) Performs program execution and system synchronization Memory (RAM) holds code and data for immediate use Input Devices sends information into the system Output Devices receives information from the system System Buses (Data Pathways) pathway for data to flow from CPU to the rest of the other components  Academic use Central Processing Unit (CPU) – the ‘brain’ The CPU is crucial for running applications, managing system tasks, and executing code that powers software and hardware operations. The main 4 functions include: Fetching – The CPU retrieves instructions from memory. Decoding – It interprets the instructions to understand what needs to be done. Executing – It carries out the instruction using arithmetic, logic, or data movement operations. Storing – The results are written back to memory or registers for further use.Intel instruction set (The four functions of the CPU are a subset of the overall four functions of a computer system, enabling the system to work efficiently.) The following are the Key Components of a CPU Control Unit (CU) – Directs the flow of data and manages instruction execution. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs mathematical and logical operations. Registers – Small storage locations for quick access to data and instructions. Cache Memory – High-speed memory that stores frequently used data for faster access.  Academic use Memory Unit (RAM) RAM (Random Access Memory) is a type of computer memory that temporarily stores data and instructions that the CPU needs while running programs. It allows for quick access to data, making it essential for system performance. Properties Temporary Storage – Holds active programs and data for quick access. Fast Read/Write – Provides much faster data access compared to storage devices (HDDs/SSDs). Multitasking – Allows multiple applications to run simultaneously without slowing down the system. Data Volatility – RAM loses its data when the computer is turned off (unlike storage devices).  Academic use Input Devices These are the some of the common devices used to capture user input Keyboard – Used to enter text and commands. Mouse – Allows point-and-click interactions. Scanner – Converts physical documents into digital format. Microphone – Captures audio input. Joystick/Game Controller – Used for gaming and simulations. Touchscreen – Accepts input through direct touch. Webcam – Captures video input. Barcode Scanner – Reads barcode data for processing.  Academic use Output Devices These are the some of the common devices used for user output. These interact with our visual, audio, and touch senses. Monitor (Display Screen) – Shows graphical and textual data. Printer – Produces hard copies of digital documents. Speaker – Outputs sound, including alerts, music, and voice. Gaming controller - Haptic Feedback via vibrations  Academic use System Buses (Data Pathways) The Von Neumann system bus is a single bus that combines three separate buses used for communication between the CPU, memory, and input/output devices. Since instructions and data share the same memory and bus, this can cause performance bottlenecks (known as the Von Neumann Bottleneck). Data Bus Bidirectional (read/write) data transfer between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices. Width (e.g., 32-bit, 64-bit) determines how much data can be transferred at a time. Address Bus Carries memory addresses from the CPU to memory or I/O devices to specify where data should be read or written. It is unidirectional (flows only from the CPU to memory/I/O). The width of the address bus determines the maximum addressable memory (e.g., a 32-bit address bus can access 4GB of memory). Control Bus Carries control signals to manage operations (e.g., read, write, interrupt requests). Signals include read/write commands, clock signals, and interrupt signals. It is bidirectional, allowing communication between the CPU and peripherals.  Academic use Motherboard These system buses are physically represented by a motherboard, Trivia – The first which connects up all the separate components in the Von motherboard was Neumann architecture The main circuit board that connects all designed by an components. IBM employee Houses the CPU, RAM, and expansion slots..  Academic use Motherboard Point out where the CPU slot is ? Point out where the RAM slots are? Expansion buses, also called peripheral buses, extend the system to connect additional devices, including peripherals. Some common examples include USB, Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe) slots. Contains chipset, BIOS, expansion slots, headers, connectors and ports  Academic use Motherboard External Ports 01 - HDMI 02 - Display port 03 - USB A 2.0 04 - USB A 3.0 (Super speed) 05 - USB C 06 - RJ-45 LAN port 07 - WIFI 08 - Optical S/PDIF out port 09 - Audio I/O ports (surround sound) 10 - Mic in port (The above ports may vary from motherboard to motherboard)  Academic use How computers communicate with other computers Using network cards (wire or wireless) connected via the PCIe bus, computers are able to communicate with each other. Can you imagine a computer with NO network?  Academic use Drawbacks of the Traditional Von Neumann Architecture motherboard Von Neumann Bottleneck Issue: Since both instructions and data share the same bus, the CPU must wait when fetching instructions and data simultaneously. This limits system performance, especially in high-speed processing applications. Conclusion: The system bus in Von Neumann architecture is a critical component for data and instruction transfer but also creates a performance limitation due to shared bus usage. Modern CPUs use techniques like caching and pipelining to minimize these bottlenecks. We will cover these terms later.  Academic use Harvard Architecture Harvard Architecture → Uses completely separate buses for data and instructions, allowing parallel access and improving performance in certain scenarios However, drawbacks include inefficient RAM utilization due to separate data and instruction memory, where one memory space (either data or instruction) fills up while the other remains largely unused,  Academic use Modified Harvard architecture Harvard architecture has strict memory separation, while Modified Harvard architecture allows the CPU shared memory access concurrently for two (or more) memory buses. The most common modification includes separate instruction and data caches backed by a common address space. Another modification provides a pathway between the instruction memory (such as ROM or flash memory) and the CPU to allow words from the instruction memory to be treated as read-only data. Most modern systems use a "modified Harvard architecture" which allows some flexibility between data and instruction memory, helping to alleviate this potential inefficiency while still maintaining performance benefits. Feature Modified Harvard Architecture Academic use Von Neumann Architecture Memory Structure Separate memory or cache for instructions and Single shared memory for both instructions and data data Data and Can access instructions and data simultaneously Instructions and data share the same bus, Instruction Access causing potential bottlenecks Speed & Faster due to parallel access to data and Slower as instruction and data fetch operations Performance instructions compete for the same memory bus Bus System Separate buses for data and instructions Single bus for both data and instructions Bottleneck Issues Reduces the Von Neumann Bottleneck Suffers from Von Neumann Bottleneck, which slows execution Flexibility More flexible than pure Harvard Architecture, as Simpler but less flexible in handling parallel some memory interaction is possible execution Usage Used in modern CPUs (Intel, AMD, ARM), DSPs, Used in general-purpose computers, and high-performance computing microcontrollers, and older computing systems Parallelism High parallelism due to independent instruction Limited parallelism due to shared bus and data access Power Efficiency More power-efficient in high-performance Can be less power-efficient due to memory applications access delays Implementation More complex due to separate caches or memory Simpler and easier to design Complexity for instructions and data Feature Modified Harvard Architecture Academic use Von Neumann Architecture Common ARM CPU processors using ARM instruction set AMD / Intel CPU processors using the x86 ,x64 Processors instruction set Examples Snapdragon X Plus and Snapdragon X Elite AMD Ryzen CPUs Apple M1 – M4 CPUs Intel i3, i5, i7, i9 CPUs Manufactured by AMD, Apple, Amazon, Broadcom, Nvidia, AMD and Intel Qualcomm, and Samsung. Common Apple iPhones , Macbooks with M series chips Normal business laptops / Gaming PCs / examples Android mobile phones Workstations Snapdragon X Plus and Snapdragon X Elite ARM based laptops (eg Suraface pro )  Academic use Summary By the end of this lesson, we have i) Identified the technologies of the latest Industrial Revolution ii) Described the role computers and networks play in the latest Industrial Revolution and explain its potential to transform life and businesses. iii) Classify modern computer systems using the von Neumann and Modified Harvard architecture. iv) Identify the major hardware components in a computer system and describe their purpose.  Academic use Activity – Your dream setup  Academic use Activity – 15 mins Timed Challenge Problem statement : Who is your favourite Twitch streamer? What would you buy if you wanted to start live streaming to get more subs? What is the purpose of buying that hardware ? What does it allow you to do?  Academic use Almost everything can be bought from NTUC Fairprice… Mic - https://www.fairprice.com.sg/product/razer-seiren-x-1 Headphones - https://www.fairprice.com.sg/product/sennheiser- accentum-over-ear-wireless-headphones---blue Webcam - https://www.fairprice.com.sg/product/logitech-c922-pro- stream-full-hd-1080p-webcam-1 Gaming Chair (officially non PC) - https://www.fairprice.com.sg/product/osim-uthrone-s-gaming-chair--- black-self-assembly Is the device on the left an input or output device?  Academic use The Module Weeks Module Objectives 1 Describe the role of networked computer systems for businesses 2-4 Describe and assemble the hardware and software components of a basic computer system 5-6 Analyze how an operating system (OS) manages processes, memory, devices and storage efficiently in a computer system 6-7 Demonstrate how virtualization technology is used and understand its role in cloud computing for the different cloud deployment models with reference to the various cloud service models. 8-11 Describe the end-to-end connectivity of the Internet and set-up a local area network (LAN) that allows the sharing of resources 12-13 Develop a prototype cloud ready IT solution that demonstrates the integration of various IT technologies  Academic use Thank you!