Building Materials 3rd Edition PDF

 BUILDING MATERIALS  This page intentionally left blank  BUILDING MATERIALS (THIRD REVISED EDITION) 5. K. Duggal B.E., M.E., Ph.D. Professor and Head Civil Engineering...

 BUILDING MATERIALS  This page intentionally left blank  BUILDING MATERIALS (THIRD REVISED EDITION) 5. K. Duggal B.E., M.E., Ph.D. Professor and Head Civil Engineering Department Motilal Nehru Institute of Technology Allahabad (U.P.) PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS New Dclhl Bangalorc Chcnnai Cochin Guwahati Hydcrabad Jalandhar > Kolkata Lucknow Mumbai Ranch: Visit LIS at www.newagepublishers.com Copyright © 2008, 2003, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers All rights reserved. No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the publisher. All inquiries should be emailed to [email protected] ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2975-6 PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002 Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com  Preface to the Third Edition The book is considerably modified version of the 2000 edition. In third edition of the book extensive revisions have been made. New materials have been introduced due to the advances in the technology and progress in industry. The information presented includes characteristics of the materials in regards to their physical and mechanical properties with emphasis on their strength and durability qualities. The material presented can be supplemented by the information from I.S. Codes and various product manufacturers. This edition embodies material changes in the chapters dealing with Cement, Concrete, Lime and many others. Testing procedures of the materials have been updated for most of the materials as some of the codes have been revised. Especially, in chapter 3 on Rocks and Stones the section on testing of Stones has been completely rewritten. Chapter 8 on Lime has been completely rewritten to make it more reader friendly. Logical changes in chapter 5 on Cement, chapter 10 on Concrete and chapter 20 on Special Cements and Cement Concretes have been made. Admixtures for concrete have been placed in chapter 10 and section on Pointing has been removed from chapter 12 on Building Mortars. Many newer and upcoming more important concretes such as Self compacting Concrete, Bacterial Concrete have been introduced in chapter 20 on special Cements and Cement Concrete. Numerous revision of data and substitutions in description have been made not only in these chapters but in other chapters also. Smart materials and composite materials have been introduced in chapter 21 on Miscellaneous Materials. The author will be grateful to the readers for their comments and suggestions for further improvement of the book. S.K. Duggal  Preface to the Second Edition The second edition of this book deals with properties of building materials and techniques for their manufacturing. Applications of building materials have been presented with emphasis on engineering and economic approaches for determining the optimum kind of materials, best suited to specific conditions of service in buildings. This edition provides a thorough and practical groundwork for students of civil, architecture and construction technology. The expanded and updated text can also serve as a refresher and reference for practicing civil engineers, architects, contractors, and other workers who must be aware of new building materials and techniques. The building materials industry is in continual development, the range of products is being expanded, and novel techniques for optimizing production processes are being introduced. The main purpose of the book is to present a basic course of study with a detailed coverage of basic theory and practice of the manufacture of building materials. The present edition embodies material change in the chapters dealing with lime, cement, concrete, and many other minor revisions. Since concrete (Chapter 10) is the most widely and extensively used building material, its production, properties, and testing have been thoroughly revised and discussed in more details and depth. Chapter 11 on mix design has been introduced to make the used understand better the manufacture and properties of concrete. Standards laid by Bureau of Indian Standards have been followed. Extensive addition in Chapter 20, miscellaneous materials, include elaboration of geotextiles, new types of cements and concretes—their properties and production processes. All this was possible due to the suggestions, and comments received form many individuals and students. I would like to thank all of them. Acknowledgement is also made to New Age Publishers for publishing the second edition. S.K. Duggal  Preface to the First Edition The primary purpose of writing this book is to give engineering students up-to-date information on building materials. The book has been prepared after referring to a number of text books, references and standards. S.I. units have been used throughout the text as far as possible. The author has tried to incorporate essential information concerning manufacture/fabrication of the various building materials; the data covering the more important mechanical and physical properties, influences of various factors on these properties; the causes of defects, their prevention and remedies; testing of materials. An attempt has also been made to present to the reader some of the more general uses and applications of the different materials. The author gratefully acknowledges the considerable encouragement, splendid help and valuable suggestions received form his colleagues. Appreciation and thanks are also due to those students who went through the preliminary and final scripts. Finally thanks are due to my wife Suman and children Swati and Shashank for their tolerance during this trying time. Efforts have been made to keep errors to a minimum. However, they are inevitable. Suggestions are welcomed from all concerned pointing out any oversights. S.K. Duggal  This page intentionally left blank  CONTENTS Preface to the Third Edition v Preface to the Second Edition vi Preface to the First Edition vii 1. Principal Properties of Building Materials 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Physical Properties 2 1.3 Mechanical Properties 6 1.4 Characteristic Behaviour under Stress 7 Exercises 7 2. Structural Clay Products 8 2.1 Introduction 8 2.2 Clay and its Classifications 9 2.3 Physical Properties of Clays 9 2.4 Bricks 10 2.5 Classification of Bricks 11 2.6 Characteristics of Good Brick 14 2.7 Ingredients of Good Brick Earth 14 2.8 Harmful Substances in Brick Earth 15 2.9 Manufacturing of Bricks 16 2.10 Different Forms of Bricks 24 2.11 Testing of Bricks 26 2.12 Defects of Bricks 29 2.13 Heavy Duty Burnt Clay Bricks (IS: 2180) 30 2.14 Burnt Clay Perforated Bricks (IS : 2222) 30 2.15 Burnt Clay Paving Bricks (IS : 3583) 31 2.16 Burnt Clay Soling Bricks (IS : 5779) 31 2.17 Burnt Clay Hollow Blocks (IS : 3952) 32 2.18 Burnt Clay Jallis (IS: 7556) 32 2.19 Clay Tiles 33 2.21 Fire-clay Bricks or Refractory Bricks 39 2.22 Terracotta 40 x Building Materials 2.23 Porcelain 41 2.24 Stoneware 42 2.25 Earthenware 42 2.26 Majolica 42 2.27 Glazing 42 2.28 Application of Clay Products 43 Exercises 44 Objective Type Questions 45 3. Rocks and Stones 52 3.1 Introduction 52 3.2 Rock-forming Minerals 53 3.3 Classification of Rocks 57 3.4 Quarrying of Stones 59 3.5 Natural Bed of Stone 63 3.6 Seasoning of Stone 63 3.7 Dressing of Stone 65 3.8 Uses of Stones 66 3.9 Characteristics of good Building Stone 67 3.10 Testing of Stones 68 3.11 Deterioration of Stones 75 3.12 Durability of Stones 77 3.13 Preservation of Stones 77 3.14 Selection of Stones 78 3.15 Common Building Stones 78 3.16 Artificial Stones 81 3.17 Applications of Stones 81 Exercises 83 Objective Type Questions 85 4. Wood and Wood Products 91 4.1 Introduction 91 4.2 Classification of Trees 92 4.3 Growth of Trees 92 4.4 Classification of Timber (IS: 399) 93 4.5 Structure of Timber 95 4.6 Characteristics of good Timber 96 4.7 Seasoning of Timber 96 4.8 Defects in Timber 98 4.9 Diseases of Timber 101 4.10 Decay of Timber 101 4.11 Preservation of Timber (IS: 401) 103 4.12 Fire Resistance of Timber 107 4.13 Testing of Timber (IS: 1708) 108 4.14 Suitability of Timber for Specific Uses 121 4.15 Properties of Wood 123 4.16 Wood Products 128  Contents xi 4.17 Applications of Wood and Wood-products 135 Exercises 136 Objective Type Questions 138 5. Materials for Making Concrete-I Cement 144 5.1 Introduction 144 5.2 Portland Cement 145 5.3 Chemical Composition of Raw Materials 146 5.4 Composition of Cement Clinker 147 5.5 Hydration of Cement 149 5.6 Rate of Hydration 151 5.7 Water Requirement for Hydration 151 5.8 Manufacture of Cement 152 5.9 Testing of Cement 154 5.10 Types of Cement 169 5.11 Storage of Cement 174 Exercises 175 Objective Type Questions 175 6. Materials for Making Concrete-II Aggregates 181 6.1 Introduction 181 6.2 Classification of Aggregates 181 6.3 Characteristics of Aggregate 183 6.4 Deleterious Materials and Organic Impurities 187 6.5 Soundness 187 6.6 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction 187 6.7 Thermal Properties of Aggregate 189 6.8 Fine Aggregate 189 6.9 Coarse Aggregate 190 6.10 Cinder Aggregates 191 6.11 Broken Brick Coarse Aggregate 191 6.12 Testing of Aggregates 191 Exercises 207 Objective Type Questions 207 7. Materials for Making Concrete-III Water 209 7.1 Introduction 209 7.2 Quality of Mixing Water 209 7.3 Effect of Mixing Water from Different Sources 211 7.4 Water for Washing Aggregates 212 7.5 Curing Water 212 Exercises 212 Objective Type Questions 212 8. Materials for Making Concrete-IV Lime 214 8.1 Introduction 214 8.2 Impurities in Limestones 216 xii Building Materials 8.3 Classification 217 8.4 Manufacture 221 8.5 Slaking 222 8.6 Hardening 223 8.7 Lime Putty and Coarse Stuff 225 8.8 Testing 225 8.9 Storage 230 8.10 Precautions in Handling 231 8.11 Lime Vs. Cement 231 Exercises 231 Objective Type Questions 232 9. Puzzolanas 234 9.1 Introduction 234 9.2 Classification 234 9.3 The Activity of Puzzolana 235 9.4 Effects of Natural Puzzolanas 236 9.5 Applications 236 9.6 Fly Ash 236 9.7 Calcined Clay Puzzolana (Surkhi) 238 9.8 Ground Blast Furnace Slag 239 9.9 Silica Fume 240 9.10 Rice Husk Ash 241 Exercises 242 Objective Type Questions 242 10. Concrete 244 10.1 Introduction 244 10.2 Classification 245 10.3 Production 246 10.4 Water-cement Ratio 264 10.5 Gel-space Ratio 266 10.6 Strength of Concrete 268 10.7 Maturity 278 10.8 Workability 279 10.9 Durability 284 10.10 Defects 286 10.11 Revibration 287 10.12 Physical Properties 287 10.13 Proportioning 289 10.14 Non-destructive Testing 289 10.15 Rheology 294 10.16 Determination of Cement Content in Hardened Portland Cement Concrete 296 10.17 Admixtures for Concrete (IS: 9103-1999) 296 Exercises 301 Objective Type Questions 303  Contents xiii 11. Concrete Mix Design 307 11.1 Introduction 307 11.2 Principles of Mix Design 309 11.3 Ingredients of the Mix 312 11.4 Acceptance Criteria 319 11.5 Proportioning the Ingredients 323 11.6 IS Method of Mix Design 325 Exercises 337 Objective Type Questions 338 12. Building Mortars 340 12.1 Introduction 340 12.2 Classification 341 12.3 Characteristics of Good Mortar 342 12.4 Functions of Ingredients 343 12.5 Cement Mortar 343 12.6 Lime Mortar 345 12.7 Surkhi Mortar 347 12.8 Lime-Cement Mortar 347 12.9 Mud Mortar 348 12.10 Special Mortars 348 12.11 Selection of Mortar 349 12.12 Testing 349 12.13 Grout 352 12.14 Guniting 352 Exercises 354 Objective Type Questions 355 13. Ferrous Metals 356 13.1 Introduction 356 13.2 Structures of Ferrous Metal 356 13.3 Iron 357 13.4 Pig Iron 357 13.5 Cast Iron 358 13.6 Wrought Iron 362 13.7 Steel 363 13.8 Rolled Steel Sections 368 13.9 Reinforcing Steel Bars 369 13.10 Rusting and Corrosion 372 13.11 Tensile Testing of Steel Sections (IS: 1608) 373 13.12 Alloy Steel 375 Exercises 377 Objective Type Questions 378 14. Non-Ferrous Metals 380 14.1 Introduction 380 14.2 Aluminium 380 xiv Building Materials 14.3 Copper 383 14.4 Zinc 385 14.5 Lead 386 14.6 Tin 387 14.7 Nickel 387 Exercises 388 Objective Type Questions 389 15. Ceramic Materials 391 15.1 Introduction 391 15.2 Classification of Ceramic 391 15.3 Refractories 392 15.4 Glass 393 15.5 Glass Wool 398 15.6 Polymorphism in Ceramic Materials 398 15.7 Mechanical Properties of Ceramic Phases 399 15.8 Thermal Properties of Ceramic Phases 399 15.9 Electrical Properties of Ceramic Phases 400 Exercises 400 Objective Type Questions 400 16. Polymeric Materials 402 16.1 Introduction 402 16.2 Polymerisation Mechanism 402 16.3 Depolymerisation 405 16.4 Rubbers 405 16.5 Plastics 411 16.6 Constituents of Plastics 412 16.7 Fabrication of Commercial Articles from Plastics 413 16.8 Applications of Plastics 416 16.9 Properties of Plastics 416 16.10 Effect of Temperature on Mechanical Properties 417 Exercises 419 Objective Type Questions 419 17. Paints, Enamels and Varnishes 421 17.1 Introduction 421 17.2 Composition of Oil Paint 421 17.3 Characteristics of an Ideal Paint 424 17.4 Preparation of Paint 424 17.5 Covering Power of Paints 425 17.6 Pigment Volume Concentration (P.V.C.) 426 17.7 Painting Plastered Surfaces 427 17.8 Painting Wood Surfaces 427 17.9 Painting Metal Surfaces 429 17.10 Defects 429 17.11 Enamel 431  Contents xv 17.12 Distemper 431 17.13 Water Wash and Colour Wash 432 17.14 Varnish 432 17.15 French Polish 434 17.16 Wax Polish 434 17.17 Miscellaneous Paints 434 Exercises 436 Objective Type Questions 437 18. Tar, Bitumen and Asphalt 440 18.1 Introduction 440 18.2 Bitumen 441 18.3 Tar 443 18.4 Pitch 444 18.5 Asphalt 444 18.6 The Choice of Product 446 18.7 General Properties 446 18.8 Testing 448 18.9 Applications of Bituminous Materials 454 Exercises 456 Objective Type Questions 456 19. Gypsum 458 19.1 Introduction 458 19.2 Effect of Heat and Moisture 459 19.3 Setting and Hardening 459 19.4 Classification 460 19.5 Manufacture 460 19.6 Plaster of Paris or Stucco 461 19.7 Gypsum Wall Plasters 462 19.8 Hard Finish Plaster 463 19.9 Gypsum Plaster Boards 463 19.10 Non-load Bearing Gypsum Partition Blocks 464 19.11 Pyrocell 464 Exercises 464 Objective Type Questions 465 20. Special Cements and Cement Concretes 466 20.1 Introduction 466 20.2 Acid-resistant Cements 466 20.3 Expanding Cements 467 20.4 Oil-Well Cement 468 20.5 Reinforced Cement Concrete 471 20.6 Prestressed Concrete 472 20.7 Polymer Concrete 473 20.8 Fibre Reinforced Concrete 474 20.9 Ferrocement 475 xvi Building Materials 20.10 Light Weight Concrete 479 20.11 High Strength Concrete 482 20.12 Shrinkage Compensating Concrete 485 20.13 Heavyweight Concrete 487 20.14 Roller Compacted Concrete 487 20.15 Ready Mixed Concrete (RMC) 488 20.16 Self-compacting Concrete 491 20.17 Shotcrete 493 20.18 High-performance Concrete 494 20.19 Bacterial Concrete 497 Exercises 498 Objective Type Questions 498 21. Miscellaneous Materials 500 21.1 Adhesives 500 21.2 Asbestos 501 21.3 Linoleum 502 21.4 Thermocol 503 21.5 Heat Insulating Materials 503 21.6 Sound Insulating Materials 503 21.7 Water Proofing Materials 503 21.8 Fiber 504 21.9 Geosynthetics 505 21.10 Sand Lime Brick (IS:4139) 510 21.11 Smart Materials 512 21.12 Composite Materials 514 Exercises 517 Objective Type Questions 518 Appendix-I 519 Lime-puzzolana Mixtures Appendix-II 520 Industrial Bitumen for Use in Buildings Index 521  1 PRINCIPAL PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS • Introduction • Characteristic Behaviour Under Stress • Physical Properties • Exercises • Mechanical Properties 1.1 INTRODUCTION Building materials have an important role to play in this modern age of technology. Although their most important use is in construction activities, no field of engineering is conceivable without their use. Also, the building materials industry is an important contributor in our national economy as its output governs both the rate and the quality of construction work. There are certain general factors which affect the choice of materials for a particular scheme. Perhaps the most important of these is the climatic background. Obviously, different materials and forms of construction have developed in different parts of the world as a result of climatic differences. Another factor is the economic aspect of the choice of materials. The rapid advance of constructional methods, the increasing introduction of mechanical tools and plants, and changes in the organisation of the building industry may appreciably influence the choice of materials. Due to the great diversity in the usage of buildings and installations and the various processes of production, a great variety of requirements are placed upon building materials calling for a very wide range of their properties: strength at low and high temperatures, resistance to ordinary water and sea water, acids and alkalis etc. Also, materials for interior decoration of residential and public buildings, gardens and parks, etc. should be, by their very purpose, pleasant to the eye, durable and strong. Specific properties of building materials serve as a basis for subdividing them into separate groups. For example, mineral binding materials are subdivided into air and hydraulic-setting varieties. The principal properties of building materials predetermine their applications. Only a comprehensive knowledge of the properties of materials allows a rational choice of materials for specific service conditions. 2 Building Materials The importance of standardisation cannot be over emphasised. It requires the quality of materials and manufactured items to be not below a specific standard level. However, the importance of standardisation is not limited to this factor alone, since each revised standard places higher requirements upon the products than the preceding one, with the effect that the industry concerned has to keep up with the standards and improved production techniques. Thus, the industry of building materials gains both in quantity and quality, so that new, more efficient products are manufactured and the output of conventional materials is increased. To develop products of greater economic efficiency, it is important to compare the performance of similar kinds of materials under specific service conditions. Expenditures for running an installation can be minimised by improving the quality of building materials and products. Building industry economists are thus required to have a good working knowledge, first, of the building materials, second, of their optimum applications on the basis of their principal properties, and, third, of their manufacturing techniques, in order that the buildings and installations may have optimum engineering, economic performance and efficiency. Having acquired adequate knowledge, an economist specialising in construction becomes an active participant in the development of the building industry and the manufacture of building materials. 1.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Density (r) is the mass of a unit volume of homogeneous material denoted by M r= g/cm3 V where M = mass (g) V = volume (cm3) Density of some building materials is as follows: Material Density (g/cm3) Brick 2.5–2.8 Granite 2.6–2.9 Portland cement 2.9–3.1 Wood 1.5–1.6 Steel 7.8–7.9 Bulk Density (rb) is the mass of a unit volume of material in its natural state (with pores and voids) calculated as M rb = kg/m3 V where M = mass of specimen (kg) V = volume of specimen in its natural state (m3) Note: Bulk density may be expressed in g/cm3 but this presents some inconveniences, and this is why it is generally expressed in kg/m3. For example, the bulk density of reinforced cement concrete is preferably expressed as 2500 kg/m3 rather than 2.5 g/cm3. For most materials, bulk density is less than density but for liquids and materials like glass and dense stone materials, these parameters are practically the same. Properties like strength and heat conductivity are greatly affected by their bulk density. Bulk densities of some of the building materials are as follows:  Principal Properties of Building Materials 3 Material Bulk density (kg/m3) Brick 1600–1800 Granite 2500–2700 Sand 1450–1650 Pine wood 500–600 Steel 7850 Density Index (ro) is the ratio, bulk density ro = density U = b U It indicates the degree to which the volume of a material is filled with solid matter. For almost all building materials ro is less than 1.0 because there are no absolutely dense bodies in nature. Specific Weight (g) also known as the unit weight) is the weight per unit volume of material, g=r.g Where g = specific weight (kN/m3) r = density of the material (kg/m) g = gravity (m/s2) Specific weight can be used in civil engineering to determine the weight of a structure designed to carry certain loads while remaining intact and remaining within limits regarding deformation. It is also used in fluid dynamics as a property of the fluid (e.g., the specific weight of water on Earth is 9.80 kN/m3 at 4°C). The terms specific gravity, and less often specific weight, are also used for relative density. Specific Gravity (Gs) of solid particles of a material is the ratio of weight/mass of a given volume of solids to the weight/mass of an equal volume of water at 4°C. J U Gs = s = s Jw Uw At 4° C gw = 1 g/cc or 9.8 kN/m3 True or absolute specific gravity (Ga) If both the permeable and impermeable voids are excluded to determine the true volume of solids, the specific gravity is called true or absolute specific gravity. Us a Ga = Uw The absolute specific gravity is not much of practical use. Apparent or mass specific gravity (Gm) If both the permeable and impermeable voids are included to determine the true volume of solids, the specific gravity is called apparent specific gravity. It is the ratio of mass density of fine grained material to the mass density of water. 4 Building Materials U Gm = Uw Porosity (n) is the degree to which volume of the material of the material is interspersed with pores. It is expressed as a ratio of the volume of pores to that of the specimen. V n= v V Porosity is indicative of other major properties of material, such as bulk density, heat conductivity, durability, etc. Dense materials, which have low porosity, are used for constructions requiring high mechanical strength on other hand, walls of buildings are commonly built of materials, featuring considerable porosity. Following inter relationship exists between void ratio and the porosity. e n= 1 e Void Ratio (e) is defined as the ratio of volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of solids (Vs). V e= v Vs If an aggregate is poured into a container of any sort it will be observed that not all of the space within the container is filled. To the vacant spaces between the particles of aggregate the name voids is applied. Necessarily, the percentage of voids like the specific weight is affected by the compactness of the aggregate and the amount of moisture which it contains. Generally void determinations are made on material measured loose. There are two classes of methods commonly employed for measuring voids, the direct and the indirect. The most-used direct method consists in determining the volume of liquid, generally water, which is required to fill the voids in a given quantity of material. Since in poring water into fine aggregate it is impossible to expel all the air between the particles, the measured voids are smaller than the actual. It therefore becomes evident that the above direct method should not be used with fine aggregate unless the test is conducted in a vacuum. By the indirect method, the solid volume of a known quantity of aggregate is obtained by pouring the material into a calibrated tank partially filled with water; the difference between the apparent volume of material and the volume of water displaced equals the voids. If very accurate results are desired void measurements should be corrected for the porosity of the aggregate and moisture it contains. Hygroscopicity is the property of a material to absorb water vapour from air. It is influenced by air-temperature and relative humidity; pores—their types, number and size, and by the nature of substance involved. Water Absorption denotes the ability of the material to absorb and retain water. It is expressed as percentage in weight or of the volume of dry material: M M Ww = 1 × 100 M M M Wv = 1 × 100 V where M1 = mass of saturated material (g)  Principal Properties of Building Materials 5 M = mass of dry material (g) V = volume of material including the pores (mm3) Water absorption by volume is always less than 100 per cent, whereas that by weight of porous material may exceed 100 per cent. The properties of building materials are greatly influenced when saturated. The ratio of compressive strength of material saturated with water to that in dry state is known as coefficient of softening and describes the water resistance of materials. For materials like clay which soak readily it is zero, whereas for materials like glass and metals it is one. Materials with coefficient of softening less than 0.8 should not be recommended in the situations permanently exposed to the action of moisture. Weathering Resistance is the ability of a material to endure alternate wet and dry conditions for a long period without considerable deformation and loss of mechanical strength. Water Permeability is the capacity of a material to allow water to penetrate under pressure. Materials like glass, steel and bitumen are impervious. Frost Resistance denotes the ability of a water-saturated material to endure repeated freezing and thawing with considerable decrease of mechanical strength. Under such conditions the water contained by the pores increases in volume even up to 9 per cent on freezing. Thus the walls of the pores experience considerable stresses and may even fail. Heat Conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. It is influenced by nature of material, its structure, porosity, character of pores and mean temperature at which heat exchange takes place. Materials with large size pores have high heat conductivity because the air inside the pores enhances heat transfer. Moist materials have a higher heat conductivity than drier ones. This property is of major concern for materials used in the walls of heated buildings since it will affect dwelling houses. Thermal Capacity is the property of a material to absorb heat described by its specific heat. Thermal capacity is of concern in the calculation of thermal stability of walls of heated buildings and heating of a material, e.g. for concrete laying in winter. Fire Resistance is the ability of a material to resist the action of high temperature without any appreciable deformation and substantial loss of strength. Fire resistive materials are those which char, smoulder, and ignite with difficulty when subjected to fire or high temperatures for long period but continue to burn or smoulder only in the presence of flame, e.g. wood impregnated with fire proofing chemicals. Non-combustible materials neither smoulder nor char under the action of temperature. Some of the materials neither crack nor lose shape such as clay bricks, whereas some others like steel suffer considerable deformation under the action of high temperature. Refractoriness denotes the ability of a material to withstand prolonged action of high temperature without melting or losing shape. Materials resisting prolonged temperatures of 1580°C or more are known as refractory. High-melting materials can withstand temperature from 1350–1580°C, whereas low-melting materials withstand temperature below 1350°C. 6 Building Materials Chemical Resistance is the ability of a material to withstand the action of acids, alkalis, sea water and gases. Natural stone materials, e.g. limestone, marble and dolomite are eroded even by weak acids, wood has low resistance to acids and alkalis, bitumen disintegrates under the action of alkali liquors. Durability is the ability of a material to resist the combined effects of atmospheric and other factors. 1.3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES The important mechanical properties considered for building materials are: strength, compressive, tensile, bending, impact, hardness, plasticity, elasticity and abrasion resistance. Strength is the ability of the material to resist failure under the action of stresses caused by loads, the most common being compression, tension, bending and impact. The importance of studying the various strengths will be highlighted from the fact that materials such as stones and concrete have high compressive strength but a low (1/5 to 1/50) tensile, bending and impact strengths. Compressive Strength is found from tests on standard cylinders, prisms and cubes—smaller for homogeneous materials and larger for less homogeneous ones. Prisms and cylinders have lower resistance than cubes of the same cross-sectional area, on the other hand prisms with heights smaller than their sides have greater strength than cubes. This is due to the fact that when a specimen is compressed the plattens of the compression testing machine within which the specimen is placed, press tight the bases of the specimen and the resultant friction forces prevent the expansion of the adjoining faces, while the central lateral parts of the specimen undergoes transversal expansion. The only force to counteract this expansion is the adhesive force between the particles of the material. That is why a section away from the press plates fails early. The test specimens of metals for tensile strength are round bars or strips and that of binding materials are of the shape of figure eight. Bending Strength tests are performed on small bars (beams) supported at their ends and subjected to one or two concentrated loads which are gradually increased until failure takes place. Hardness is the ability of a material to resist penetration by a harder body. Mohs scale is used to find the hardness of materials. It is a list of ten minerals arranged in the order of increasing hardness (Section 3.2). Hardness of metals and plastics is found by indentation of a steel ball. Elasticity is the ability of a material to restore its initial form and dimensions after the load is removed. Within the limits of elasticity of solid bodies, the deformation is proportional to the stress. Ratio of unit stress to unit deformation is termed as modulus of elasticity. A large value of it represents a material with very small deformation. Plasticity is the ability of a material to change its shape under load without cracking and to retain this shape after the load is removed. Some of the examples of plastic materials are steel, copper and hot bitumen.  Principal Properties of Building Materials 7 1.4 CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR UNDER STRESS The common characteristics of building materials under stress are ductility, brittleness, stiffness, flexibility, toughness, malleability and hardness. The ductile materials can be drawn out without necking down, the examples being copper and wrought iron. Brittle materials have little or no plasticity. They fail suddenly without warning. Cast iron, stone, brick and concrete are comparatively brittle materials having a considerable amount of plasticity. Stiff materials have a high modulus of elasticity permitting small deformation for a given load. Flexible materials on the other hand have low modulus of elasticity and bend considerably without breakdown. Tough materials withstand heavy shocks. Toughness depends upon strength and flexibility. Malleable materials can be hammered into sheets without rupture. It depends upon ductility and softness of material. Copper is the most malleable material. Hard materials resist scratching and denting, for example cast iron and chrome steel. Materials resistant to abrasion such as manganese are also known as hard materials. EXERCISES l. (a) Why is it important to study the properties of building materials? (b) List and define the physical properties of building materials. 2. (a) What are the factors influencing the choice of a building material? (b) Why is it important to make standards for building materials? 3. Define the following: (a) Density (b) Bulk density (c) Density index (d) Specific weight (e) Porosity (f) Void ratio 4. Write short notes on the following: (a) Refractoriness (b) Heat conductivity (c) Selection of building materials (d) Fire resistive materials 8 Building Materials 2 STRUCTURAL CLAY PRODUCTS • Introduction • Burnt Clay Soling Bricks • Clay and Its Classifications • Burnt Clay Hollow Blocks • Physical Properties of Clay • Burnt Clay Jallis • Bricks • Clay Tiles • Classification of Bricks • Fire-clay or Refractory Clay • Characteristics of Good Brick • Fire-clay Bricks or Refractory Bricks • Ingredients of Good Brick Earth • Terracotta • Harmful Substances in Brick Earth • Porcelain • Manufacturing of Bricks • Stoneware • Different Forms of Bricks • Earthenware • Testing of Bricks • Majolica • Defects of Bricks • Glazing • Heavy Duty Burnt Clay Bricks • Applications of clay Products • Burnt Clay Perforated Bricks • Exercises • Burnt Clay Paving Bricks • Objective Type Questions 2.1 INTRODUCTION Clay products are one of the most important classes of structural materials. The raw materials used in their manufacture are clay blended with quartz, sand, chamatte (refractory clay burned at 1000–1400°C and crushed), slag, sawdust and pulverized coal. Structural clay products or building ceramics* are basically fabricated by moulding, drying and burning a clay mass. Higher the bulk specific gravity, the stronger is the clay product. This rule does not hold good for vitrified products since the specific gravity of clay decreases as vitrification advances. Bulk specific gravity of clay brick ranges from 1.6 to 2.5. According to the method of manufacture and structure, bricks, tiles, pipes, terracotta, earthenwares, stonewares, porcelain, and majolica are well recognized and employed in building * Polycrystalline materials and products formed by baking natural clays and mineral admixtures at a high temperature and also by sintering the oxides of various metals and other high melting-point inorganic substances.  Structural Clay Products 9 construction. Clay bricks have pleasing appearance, strength and durability whereas clay tiles used for light-weight partition walls and floors possess high strength and resistance to fire. Clay pipes on account of their durability, strength, lightness and cheapness are successfully used in sewers, drains and conduits. 2.2 CLAY AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS Clay is the most important raw material used for making bricks. It is an earthen mineral mass or fragmentary rock capable of mixing with water and forming a plastic viscous mass which has a property of retaining its shape when moulded and dried. When such masses are heated to redness, they acquire hardness and strength. This is a result of micro-structural changes in clay and as such is a chemical property. Purest clays consist mainly of kaolinite (2SiO2.Al2O3.2H2O) with small quantities of minerals such as quartz, mica, felspar, calcite, magnesite, etc. By their origin, clays are subdivided as residual and transported clays. Residual clays, known as Kaolin or China clay, are formed from the decay of underlying rocks and are used for making pottery. The transported or sedimentary clays result from the action of weathering agencies. These are more disperse, contain impurities, and free from large particles of mother rocks. On the basis of resistance to high temperatures (more than 1580°C), clays are classified as refractory, high melting and low melting clays. The refractory clays are highly disperse and very plastic. These have high content of alumina and low content of impurities, such as Fe2O3, tending to lower the refractoriness. High melting clays have high refractoriness (1350–1580°C) and contain small amount of impurities such as quartz, felspar, mica, calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate. These are used for manufacturing facing bricks, floor tiles, sewer pipes, etc. Low melting clays have refractoriness less than 1350°C and have varying compositions. These are used to manufacture bricks, blocks, tiles, etc. Admixtures are added to clay to improve its properties, if desired. Highly plastic clays which require mixing water up to 28 per cent, give high drying and burning shrinkage, call for addition of lean admixtures or non-plastic substances such as quartz sand, chamottee, ash, etc. Items of lower bulk density and high porosity are obtained by addition of admixture that burn out. The examples of burning out admixtures are sawdust, coal fines, pulverized coal. etc. Acid resistance items and facing tiles are manufactured from clay by addition of water-glass or alkalis. Burning temperature of clay items can be reduced by blending clay with fluxes such as felspar, iron bearing ores, etc. Plasticity of moulding mass may be increased by adding surfactants such as sulphite-sodium vinasse (0.1–0.3%). 2.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CLAYS Plasticity, tensile strength, texture, shrinkage, porosity, fusibility and colour after burning are the physical properties which are the most important in determining the value of clay. Knowledge of these properties is of more benefit in judging the quality of the raw material than a chemical analysis. By plasticity is meant the property which wetted clay has of being permanently deformed without cracking. The amount of water required by different clays to produce the most plastic condition varies from 15 to 35 per cent. Although plasticity is the most important physical property of clay, yet there are no methods of measuring it which are entirely satisfactory. The 10 Building Materials simplest and the most used test is afforded by feeling of the wetted clay with the fingers. Personal equation necessarily plays a large part in such determination. Since clay ware is subjected to considerable stress in moulding, handling and drying, a high tensile strength is desirable. The test is made by determining the stregth of specimens which have been moulded into briquette form and very carefully dried. The texture of clay is measured by the fineness of its grains. In rough work the per cent passing a No. 100 sieve is determined. No numerical limit to the grain size or desired relation between sizes has been established. Very fine grained clays free from sand are more plastic and shrink more than those containing coarser material. Knowledge of shrinkage both in drying and in burning is required in order to produce a product of required size. Also the amount of shrinkage forms an index of the degree of burning. The shrinkage in drying is dependent upon pore space within the clay and upon the amount of mixing water. The addition of sand or ground burnt clay lowers shrinkage, increases the porosity and facilitates drying. Fire shrinkage is dependent upon the proportion of volatile elements, upon texture and the way that clay burns. By porosity of clay is meant the ratio if the volume of pore space to the dry volume. Since porosity affects the proportion of water required to make clay plastic, it will indirectly influence air shrinkage. Large pores allow the water to evaporate more easily and consequently permit a higher rate of drying than do small pores. In as much as the rate at which the clay may be safely dried is of great importance in manufacturing clay products, the effect of porosity on the rate of drying should be considered. The temperature at which clay fuses is determined by the proportion of fluxes, texture, homogeneity of the material, character of the flame and its mineral constitution. Owing to non- uniformity in composition, parts of the clay body melt at different rates so that the softening period extends over a considerable range both of time and temperature. This period is divided into incipient vitrification and viscous vitrification. Experiments roughly indicate that the higher the proportion of fluxes the lower the melting point. Fine textured clays fuse more easily than those of coarser texture and the same mineral composition. The uniformity of the clay mass determines very largely the influence of various elements; the carbonate of lime in large lumps may cause popping when present in small percentages, but when finely ground 15 per cent of it may be allowed in making brick or tile. Lime combined with silicate of alumina (feldspar) forms a desirable flux. Iron in the ferrous form, found in carbonates and in magnetite, fuses more easily than when present as ferric iron. If the kiln atmosphere is insufficiently oxidizing in character during the early stages of burning, the removal of carbon and sulphur will be prevented until the mass has shrunk to such an extent as to prevent their expulsion and the oxidation of iron. When this happens, a product with a discoloured core or swollen body is likely to result. A determination of the fusibility of a clay is of much importance both in judging of the cost of burning it and in estimating its refractoriness. 2.4 BRICKS One of the oldest building material brick continues to be a most popular and leading construction material because of being cheap, durable and easy to handle and work with. Clay bricks are used for building-up exterior and interior walls, partitions, piers, footings and other load bearing structures.  Structural Clay Products 11 A brick is rectangular in shape and of size that can be conveniently handled with one hand. Brick may be made of burnt clay or mixture of sand and lime or of Portland cement concrete. Clay bricks are commonly used since these are economical and easily available. The length, width and height of a brick are interrelated as below: Length of brick = 2 × width of brick + thickness of mortar Height of brick = width of brick Size of a standard brick (also known as modular brick) should be 19 × 9 × 9 cm and 19 × 9 × 4 cm. When placed in masonry the 19 × 9 × 9 cm brick with mortar becomes 20 × 10 × 10 cm. 1 However, the bricks available in most part of the country still are 9" × 4 " × 3" and are known 2 as field bricks. Weight of such a brick is 3.0 kg. An indent called frog, 1–2 cm deep, as shown in Fig. 2.1, is provided for 9 cm high bricks. The size of frog should be 10 × 4 × 1 cm. The purpose of providing frog is to form a key for holding the mortar and therefore, the bricks are laid with frogs on top. Frog is not provided in 4 cm high bricks and extruded bricks. Fig. 2.1 Bricks with Frog 2.5 CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS On Field Practice Clay bricks are classified as first class, second class, third class and fourth class based on their physical and mechanical properties. First Class Bricks 1. These are thoroughly burnt and are of deep red, cherry or copper colour. 2. The surface should be smooth and rectangular, with parallel, sharp and straight edges and square corners. 3. These should be free from flaws, cracks and stones. 4. These should have uniform texture. 5. No impression should be left on the brick when a scratch is made by a finger nail. 6. The fractured surface of the brick should not show lumps of lime. 7. A metallic or ringing sound should come when two bricks are struck against each other. 8. Water absorption should be 12–15% of its dry weight when immersed in cold water for 24 hours. 12 Building Materials 9. The crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 10 N/mm2. This limit varies with different Government organizations around the country. Uses: First class bricks are recommended for pointing, exposed face work in masonry structures, flooring and reinforced brick work. Second Class Bricks are supposed to have the same requirements as the first class ones except that 1. Small cracks and distortions are permitted. 2. A little higher water absorption of about 16–20% of its dry weight is allowed. 3. The crushing strength should not be less than 7.0 N/mm2. Uses: Second class bricks are recommended for all important or unimportant hidden masonry works and centering of reinforced brick and reinforced cement concrete (RCC) structures. Third Class Bricks are underburnt. They are soft and light-coloured producing a dull sound when struck against each other. Water absorption is about 25 per cent of dry weight. Uses : It is used for building temporary structures. Fourth Class Bricks are overburnt and badly distorted in shape and size and are brittle in nature. Uses: The ballast of such bricks is used for foundation and floors in lime concrete and road metal. On Strength The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has classified the bricks on the basis of compressive strength and is as given in Table 2.1. Table 2.1 Classification of Bricks based on Compressive Strength (IS: 1077) Class Average compressive strength not less than (N/mm2) 35 35.0 30 30.0 25 25.0 20 20.0 17.5 17.5 15 15.0 12.5 12.5 10 10.0 7.5 7.5 5 5.0 3.5 3.5 Notes: 1. The burnt clay bricks having compressive strength more than 40.0 N/mm2 are known as heavy duty bricks and are used for heavy duty structures such as bridges, foundations for industrial buildings, multistory buildings, etc. The water absorption of these bricks is limited to 5 per cent. 2. Each class of bricks as specified above is further divided into subclasses A and B based on tolerances and shape. Subclass-A bricks should have smooth rectangular faces with sharp corners and uniform colour. Subclass-B bricks may have slightly distorted and round edges.  Structural Clay Products 13 Subclass-A Subclass-B Dimension Tolerance Dimension Tolerance (cm) (mm) (cm) (mm) Length 380 ± 12 380 ± 30 Width 180 ±6 180 ± 15 Height (i) 9 cm 180 ±6 180 ± 15 (ii) 4 cm 80 ±3 80 ±6 On the Basis of Use Common Brick is a general multi-purpose unit manufactured economically without special reference to appearance. These may vary greatly in strength and durability and are used for filling, backing and in walls where appearance is of no consequence. Facing Bricks are made primarily with a view to have good appearance, either of colour or texture or both. These are durable under severe exposure and are used in fronts of building walls for which a pleasing appearance is desired. Engineering Bricks are strong, impermeable, smooth, table moulded, hard and conform to defined limits of absorption and strength. These are used for all load bearing structures. On the Basis of Finish Sand-faced Brick has textured surface manufactured by sprinkling sand on the inner surfaces of the mould. Rustic Brick has mechanically textured finish, varying in pattern. On the Basis of Manufacture Hand-made: These bricks are hand moulded. Machine-made: Depending upon mechanical arrangement, bricks are known as wire-cut bricks—bricks cut from clay extruded in a column and cut off into brick sizes by wires; pressed- bricks—when bricks are manufactured from stiff plastic or semi-dry clay and pressed into moulds; moulded bricks—when bricks are moulded by machines imitating hand mixing. On the Basis of Burning Pale Bricks are underburnt bricks obtained from outer portion of the kiln. Body Bricks are well burnt bricks occupying central portion of the kiln. Arch Bricks are overburnt also known as clinker bricks obtained from inner portion of the kiln. On the Basis of Types Solid: Small holes not exceeding 25 per cent of the volume of the brick are permitted; alternatively, frogs not exceeding 20 per cent of the total volume are permitted. Perforated: Small holes may exceed 25 per cent of the total volume of the brick. 14 Building Materials Hollow: The total of holes, which need not be small, may exceed 25 per cent of the volume of the brick. Cellular: Holes closed at one end exceed 20 per cent of the volume. Note: Small holes are less than 20 mm or less than 500 mm2 in cross section. 2.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BRICK The essential requirements for building bricks are sufficient strength in crushing, regularity in size, a proper suction rate, and a pleasing appearance when exposed to view. Size and Shape: The bricks should have uniform size and plane, rectangular surfaces with parallel sides and sharp straight edges. Colour: The brick should have a uniform deep red or cherry colour as indicative of uniformity in chemical composition and thoroughness in the burning of the brick. Texture and Compactness: The surfaces should not be too smooth to cause slipping of mortar. The brick should have precompact and uniform texture. A fractured surface should not show fissures, holes grits or lumps of lime. Hardness and Soundness: The brick should be so hard that when scratched by a finger nail no impression is made. When two bricks are struck together, a metallic sound should be produced. Water Absorption should not exceed 20 per cent of its dry weight when kept immersed in water for 24 hours. Crushing Strength should not be less than 10 N/mm2. Brick Earth should be free from stones, kankars, organic matter, saltpetre, etc. 2.7 INGREDIENTS OF GOOD BRICK EARTH For the preparation of bricks, clay or other suitable earth is moulded to the desired shape after subjecting it to several processes. After drying, it should not shrink and no crack should develop. The clay used for brick making consists mainly of silica and alumina mixed in such a proportion that the clay becomes plastic when water is added to it. It also consists of small proportions of lime, iron, manganese, sulphur, etc. The proportions of various ingredients are as follows: Silica 50–60% Alumina 20–30% Lime 10% } Magnesia < 1% Ferric oxide < 7% Less than 20% Alkalis < 10% } Carbon dioxide Sulphur trioxide Very small percentage Water  Structural Clay Products 15 Functions of Various Ingredients Silica: It enables the brick to retain its shape and imparts durability, prevents shrinkage and warping. Excess of silica makes the brick brittle and weak on burning. A large percentage of sand or uncombined silica in clay is undesirable. However, it is added to decrease shrinkage in burning and to increase the refractoriness of low alumina clays. Alumina absorbs water and renders the clay plastic. If alumina is present in excess of the specified quantity, it produces cracks in brick on drying. Clays having exceedingly high alumina content are likely to be very refractory. Lime normally constitutes less than 10 per cent of clay. Lime in brick clay has the following effects: 1. Reduces the shrinkage on drying. 2. Causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it. 3. In carbonated form, lime lowers the fusion point. 4. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and the brick looses its shape. 5. Red bricks are obtained on burning at considerably high temperature (more than 800°C) and buff-burning bricks are made by increasing the lime content. Magnesia rarely exceeding 1 per cent, affects the colour and makes the brick yellow, in burning; it causes the clay to soften at slower rate than in most case is lime and reduces warping. Iron Iron oxide constituting less than 7 per cent of clay, imparts the following properties: 1. Gives red colour on burning when excess of oxygen is available and dark brown or even black colour when oxygen available is insufficient, however, excess of ferric oxide makes the brick dark blue. 2. Improves impermeability and durability. 3. Tends to lower the fusion point of the clay, especially if present as ferrous oxide. 4. Gives strength and hardness. 2.8 HARMFUL SUBSTANCES IN BRICK EARTH Lime: When a desirable amount of lime is present in the clay, it results in good bricks, but if in excess, it changes the colour of the brick from red to yellow. When lime is present in lumps, it absorbs moisture, swells and causes disintegration of the bricks. Therefore, lime should be present in finely divided state and lumps, if any, should be removed in the beginning itself. Experience has shown, however, that when line particles smaller than 3 mm diameter hydrate they produce only small pock mark which, provided that there are not many of them, can usually be ignored. Particles larger than this might, if present in any quantity, cause unsightly blemishes or even severe cracking. Pebbles, Gravels, Grits do not allow the clay to be mixed thoroughly and spoil the appearance of the brick. Bricks with pebbles and gravels may crack while working. Iron Pyrites tend to oxidise and decompose the brick during burning. The brick may split into pieces. Pyrites discolourise the bricks. 16 Building Materials Alkalis (Alkaline salts) forming less than 10 per cent of the raw clay, are of great value as fluxes, especially when combined with silicates of alumina. These are mainly in the form of soda or potash. However, when present in excess, alkali makes the clay unsuitable for bricks. They melt the clay on burning and make the bricks unsymmetrical. When bricks come in contact with moisture, water is absorbed and the alkalis crystallise. On drying, the moisture evaporates, leaving behind grey or white powder deposits on the brick which spoil the appearance. This phenomenon is called efflorescence. Efflorescence should always be dry brushed away before rendering or plastering a wall; wetting it will carry the salts back into the wall to reappear later. If bricks become saturated before the work is completed, the probability of subsequent efflorescence is increased, brick stacks should, therefore be protected from rain at all times. During laying, the bricks should be moistened only to the extent that is found absolutely essential to obtain adequate bond between bricks and mortar; newly built brickwork should be protected from rain. Organic Matter: On burning green bricks, the organic matter gets charred and leave pores making the bricks porous; the water absorption is increased and the strength is reduced. Carbonaceous Materials in the form of bituminous matter or carbon greatly affects the colour of raw clay. Unless proper precaution is taken to effect complete removal of such matter by oxidation, the brick is likely to have a black core. Sulphur is usually found in clay as the sulphate of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium or iron, or as iron sulphide. Generally, the proportion is small. If, however, there is carbon in the clay and insufficient time is given during burning for proper oxidation of carbon and sulphur, the latter will cause the formation of a spongy, swollen structure in the brick and the brick will be decoloured by white blotches. Water: A large proportion of free water generally causes clay to shrink considerably during drying, whereas combined water causes shrinkage during burning. The use of water containing small quantities of magnesium or calcium carbonates, together with a sulphurous fuel often causes similar effects as those by sulphur. 2.9 MANUFACTURING OF BRICKS Additives in the Manufacture of Bricks Certain additives such as fly ash, sandy loam, rice husk ash, basalt stone dust, etc. are often required not only to modify the shaping, drying and firing behaviour of clay mass, but also to help conserve agricultural land and utilise waste materials available in large quantities. These additives should, however, have a desirable level of physical and chemical characteristics so as to modify the behaviour of clay mass within the optimum range without any adverse effect on the performance and durability. Some of the basic physio-chemical requirements of conventional additives are as under:  Structural Clay Products 17 Fly Ash: A waste material available in large quantities from thermal power plants can be added to alluvial, red, black, marine clays, etc. The fly ash contains amorphous glassy material, mullite, haematite, magnetite, etc. and shows a chemical composition similar to brick earths. These silicates also help towards strength development in clay bodies on firing, when mixed in optimum proportion depending on the physio-chemical and plastic properties of soils to be used for brick making. The proportion of fly ash mixed as an additive to the brick earth should be optimum to reduce drying shrinkage, check drying losses and to develop strength on firing without bloating or black coring in fired product. The crystallites present in the fly ash should comply with the resultant high temperature phases in the finished product. The desirable characteristics of fly ash which could be used as an additive to the soil mass are given in Table 2.2. Table 2.2 Desirable Characteristics of Fly Ash for Use as an Admixture with Brick Earths S.No. Characteristics Desired level 1. Texture Fineness, 200 to 2. Maximum coarse material 300 m2/kg (+ 1 mm) 0.5% 3. Maximum unburnt carbon per cent by mass 15% 4. Maximum water soluble per cent by mass 0.1% Sandy Loam: Addition of sandy loam is often found effective in controlling the drying behaviour of highly plastic soil mass containing expanding group of clay minerals. Sandy loam should preferably have a mechanical composition as specified below. The material should, however, meet the other requirement as well. Clay (< 2 micron) 8–10% Silt (2–20 micron) 30–50% Sand (> 20 micron) 40–60% Rice Husk Ash: The ash should preferably have unburnt carbon content in the range of 3–5% and should be free from extraneous material. It can be used with plastic black red soils showing excessive shrinkage. Basalt Stone Dust: Basalt stone occurs underneath the black cotton soil and its dust is a waste product available in large quantity from basalt stone crushing units. The finer fraction from basalt stone units is mixed with soil mass to modify the shaping, drying and firing behaviour of bricks. The dust recommended for use as an additive with brick earth should be fine (passing 1 mm sieve), free from coarse materials or mica flakes and should be of non-calcitic or dolomitic origin. The operations involved in the manufacture of clay bricks are represented diagrammatically in Fig. 2.2. 18 Building Materials ¬¾ Brick Fig. 2.2 Operations Involved in Manufacturing of Clay Bricks Preparation of Brick Earth It consists of the following operations. Unsoiling: The soil used for making building bricks should be processed so as to be free of gravel, coarse sand (practical size more than 2 mm), lime and kankar particles, organic matter, etc. About 20 cm of the top layer of the earth, normally containing stones, pebbles, gravel, roots, etc., is removed after clearing the trees and vegetation. Digging: After removing the top layer of the earth, proportions of additives such as fly ash, sandy loam, rice husk ash, stone dust, etc. should be spread over the plane ground surface on volume basis. The soil mass is then manually excavated, puddled, watered and left over for weathering and subsequent processing. The digging operation should be done before rains. Weathering: Stones, gravels, pebbles, roots, etc. are removed from the dug earth and the soil is heaped on level ground in layers of 60–120 cm. The soil is left in heaps and exposed to weather for at least one month in cases where such weathering is considered necessary for the soil. This is done to develop homogeneity in the mass of soil, particularly if they are from different sources, and also to eliminate the impurities which get oxidized. Soluble salts in the clay would also be eroded by rain to some extent, which otherwise could have caused scumming at the time of burning of the bricks in the kiln. The soil should be turned over at least twice and it should be ensured that the entire soil is wet throughout the period of weathering. In order to keep it wet, water may be sprayed as often as necessary. The plasticity and strength of the clay are improved by exposing the clay to weather. Blending: The earth is then mixed with sandy-earth and calcareous-earth in suitable proportions to modify the composition of soil. Moderate amount of water is mixed so as to obtain the right consistency for moulding. The mass is then mixed uniformly with spades. Addition of water to the soil at the dumps is necessary for the easy mixing and workability, but the addition of water should be controlled in such a way that it may not create a problem in moulding and drying. Excessive moisture content may effect the size and shape of the finished brick.  Structural Clay Products 19 Tempering: Tempering consists of kneading the earth with feet so as to make the mass stiff and plastics (by plasticity, we mean the property which wet clay has of being permanently deformed without cracking). It should preferably be carried out by storing the soil in a cool place in layers of about 30 cm thickness for not less than 36 hours. This will ensure homogeneity in the mass of clay for subsequent processing. For manufacturing good brick, tempering is done in pug mills and the operation is called pugging. Pug mill consists of a conical iron tube as shown in Fig. 2.3. The mill is sunk 60 cm into the earth. A vertical shaft, with a number of horizontal arms fitted with knives, is provided at the centre of the tube. This central shaft is rotated with the help of bullocks yoked at the end of long arms. However, steam, diesel or electric power may be used for this purpose. Blended earth along with required water, is fed into the pug mill from the top. The knives cut through the clay and break all the clods or lump-clays when the shaft rotates. The thoroughly pugged clay is then taken out from opening provided in the side near the bottom. The yield from a pug mill is about Fig. 2.3 Pug Mill 1500 bricks. Moulding It is a process of giving a required shape to the brick from the prepared brick earth. Moulding may be carried out by hand or by machines. The process of moulding of bricks may be the soft-mud (hand moulding), the stiff-mud (machine moulding) or the dry- press process (moulding using maximum 10 per cent water and forming bricks at higher pressures). Fire-brick is made by the soft mud process. Roofing, floor and wall tiles are made by dry-press method. However, the stiff-mud process is used for making all the structural clay products. Fig. 2.4 Details of Mould Hand Moulding: A typical mould is shown in Fig. 2.4. Hand moulding is further classified as ground moulding and table moulding. Fig. 2.4 Details of Mould 20 Building Materials Ground Moulding: In this process, the ground is levelled and sand is sprinkled on it. The moulded bricks are left on the ground for drying. Such bricks do not have frog and the lower brick surface becomes too rough. To overcome these defects, moulding blocks or boards are used at the base of the mould. The process consists of shaping in hands a lump of well pugged earth, slightly more than that of the brick volume. It is then rolled into the sand and with a jerk it is dashed into the mould. The moulder then gives blows with his fists and presses the earth properly in the corners of the mould with his thumb. The surplus clay on the top surface is removed with a sharp edge metal plate called strike (Fig. 2.5) or with a thin wire stretched over the mould. After this the mould is given a gentle slope and is lifted leaving the brick on the ground to dry. Fig. 2.5 Strikes Notes: (i) This method is adopted when a large and level land is available. (ii) To prevent the moulded bricks from sticking to the side of the mould, sand is sprinkled on the inner sides of the mould, or the mould may be dipped in water every time before moulding is done. The bricks so produced are respectively called sand moulded and slop moulded bricks, the former being better since they provide sufficient rough surface necessary for achieving a good bond between bricks and mortar. Table Moulding: The bricks are moulded on stock boards nailed on the moulding table (Fig. 2.6). Stock boards have the projection for forming the frog. The process of filling clay in the mould is the same as explained above. After this, a thin board called pallet is placed over the mould. The mould containing the brick is then smartly lifted off the stock board and inverted so that the moulded clay along with the mould rests on the pallet. The mould is then removed as explained before and the brick is carried to the drying site. Fig. 2.6(a) Brick Moulding Table Fig. 2.6(b) Stock Board Machine Moulding can be done by either of the following processes: Plastic Method: The pugged, stiffer clay is forced through a rectangular opening of brick size by means of an auger. Clay comes out of the opening in the form of a bar. The bricks are cut  Structural Clay Products 21 from the bar by a frame consisting of several wires at a distance of brick size as shown in Fig. 2.7. This is a quick and economical process. Fig. 2.7 Plastic Moulding Dry-press Method: The moist, powdered clay is fed into the mould on a mechanically operated press, where it is subjected to high pressure and the clay in the mould takes the shape of bricks. Such pressed bricks are more dense, smooth and uniform than ordinary bricks. These are burnt carefully as they are likely to crack. Drying Green bricks contain about 7–30% moisture depending upon the method of manufacture. The object of drying is to remove the moistre to control the shrinkage and save fuel and time during burning. The drying shrinkage is dependent upon pore spaces within the clay and the mixing water. The addition of sand or ground burnt clay reduces shrinkage, increases porosity and facilities drying. The moisture content is brought down to about 3 per cent under exposed conditions within three to four days. Thus, the strength of the green bricks is increased and the bricks can be handled safely. Clay products can be dried in open air driers or in artificial driers. The artificial driers are of two types, the hot floor drier and the tunnel drier. In the former, heat is applied by a furnance placed at one end of the drier or by exhaust steam from the engine used to furnish power and is used for fire bricks, clay pipes and terracotta. Tunnel driers are heated by fuels underneath, by steam pipes, or by hot air from cooling kilns. They are more economical than floor driers. In artificial driers, temperature rarely exceeds 120°C. The time varies from one to three days. In developing countries, bricks are normally dried in natural open Fig. 2.8 Method of Drying Bricks air driers (Fig. 2.8). They are stacked on raised ground 22 Building Materials and are protected from bad weather and direct sunlight. A gap of about 1.0 m is left in the adjacent layers of the stacks so as to allow free movement for the workers. Burning The burning of clay may be divided into three main stages. Dehydration (400–650°C): This is also known as water smoking stage. During dehydration, (1) the water which has been retained in the pores of the clay after drying is driven off and the clay loses its plasticity, (2) some of the carbonaceous matter is burnt, (3) a portion of sulphur is distilled from pyrites. (4) hydrous minerals like ferric hydroxide are dehydrated, and (5) the carbonate minerals are more or less decarbonated. Too rapid heating causes cracking or bursting of the bricks. On the other hand, if alkali is contained in the clay or sulphur is present in large amount in the coal, too slow heating of clay produces a scum on the surface of the bricks. Oxidation Period (650–900°C): During the oxidation period, (1) remainder of carbon is eliminated and, (2) the ferrous iron is oxidized to the ferric form. The removal of sulphur is completed only after the carbon has been eliminated. Sulphur on account of its affinity for oxygen, also holds back the oxidation of iron. Consequently, in order to avoid black or spongy cores, oxidation must proceed at such a rate which will allow these changes to occur before the heat becomes sufficient to soften the clay and close its pore. Sand is often added to the raw clay to produce a more open structure and thus provide escape of gases generated in burning. Vitrification—To convert the mass into glass like substance — the temperature ranges from 900–1100°C for low melting clay and 1000–1250°C for high melting clay. Great care is required in cooling the bricks below the cherry red heat in order to avoid checking and cracking. Vitrification period may further be divided into (a) incipient vitrification, at which the clay has softened sufficiently to cause adherence but not enough to close the pores or cause loss of space—on cooling the material cannot be scratched by the knife; (b) complete vitrification, more or less well-marked by maximum shrinkage; (c) viscous vitrification, produced by a further increase in temperature which results in a soft molten mass, a gradual loss in shape, and a glassy structure after cooling. Generally, clay products are vitrified to the point of viscosity. However, paving bricks are burnt to the stage of complete vitrification to achieve maximum hardness as well as toughness. Burning of bricks is done in a clamp or kiln. A clamp is a temporary structure whereas kiln is a permanent one. Burning in Clamp or Pazawah: A typical clamp is shown in Fig. 2.9. The bricks and fuel are placed in alternate layers. The amount of fuel is reduced successively in the top layers. Each brick tier consists of 4–5 layers of bricks. Some space is left between bricks for free circulation of hot gasses. After 30 per cent loading of the clamp, the fuel in the lowest layer is fired and the remaining loading of bricks and fuel is carried out hurriedly. The top and sides of the clamp are plastered with mud. Then a coat of cowdung is given, which prevents the escape of heat. The production of bricks is 2–3 lacs and the process is completed in six months. This process yields about 60 per cent first class bricks.  Structural Clay Products 23 Kiln Burning: The kiln used for burning bricks may be underground, e.g. Bull’s trench kiln or overground, e.g. Hoffman’s kiln. These may be rectangular, circular or oval in shape. When the process of burning bricks is continuous, the kiln is known as continuous kiln, e.g. Bull’s trench and Hoffman’s kilns. On the other hand if the process of burning bricks is discontinuous, the kiln is known as intermittent kiln. Intermittent Kiln: The example of this type of an over ground, rectangular kiln is shown in Fig. 2.10. After loading the kiln, it is fired, cooled and unloaded and then the next loading is done. Since the walls and sides get cooled during reloading and are to be heated again during next firing, there is wastage of fuel. Section Plan Plan Section Fig. 2.9 Clamp or Pazawah Fig. 2.10 Intermittent Kiln Continuous Kiln: The examples of continuous kiln are Hoffman’s kiln (Fig. 2.11) and Bull’s trench kiln (Fig. 2.12). In a continuous kiln, bricks are stacked in various chambers wherein the bricks undergo different treatments at the same time. When the bricks in one of the chambers is fired, the bricks in the next set of chambers are dried and preheated while bricks in the other set of chambers are loaded and in the last are cooled. Note: In the areas where black cotton soil occur, a more elaborate method of processing is followed. The clay, which may be black or a mixture of black and yellow, is first washed free of the lime kankar in the ‘GHOL’ tanks. The slurry is then run off to the setting tanks. After 3–4 days when the clay has settled down, the supernatant water is bucketed off. Opening material like powdered grog of fine coal ash (passing 2.00 mm sieve), which opens up the texture of clay mass, is then added in predetermined proportions. This is usually 30 to 40 per cent of the mass of clay. A solution of 0.5 per cent sodium chloride may also be added at this stage to prevent lime bursting. The clay is then thoroughly mixed with the opening materials added and allowed to dry further for a period of 3–4 24 Building Materials days till the mix attains the correct moulding consistency. Grog is prepared by lightly calcining lumps of black cotton soil (about 10 to 15 cm dia.) in a clamp at about 700° to 750°C. Coal ash, fire wood, brambles, etc. may be used as fuel. The fuel and clay lumps are arranged in alternate layers in the clamp. After calcination the clay is pulverized in a machine, such as disintegrator, a hammer mill or a pan-mill to a fineness of less than 2.0 mm. Section 60 Plan Fig. 2.11 Hoffman’s Continuous Kiln Fig. 2.12 Bull’s Trench Kiln 2.10 DIFFERENT FORMS OF BRICKS Some of the common type of bricks, depending upon the places of use, are shown in Fig. 2.13. Round ended and bull nosed bricks (Fig. 2.13 (a, f)) are used to construct open drains. For door and window jambs, cant brick, also called splay brick, shown in Fig. 2.13 (b, c), are most suitable. The double cant brick shown in Fig. 2.13 (c) is used for octagonal pillars. Cornice brick shown in Fig. 2.13 (d) is used from architectural point of view. Figure 2.13 (e) shows a compass brick—tapering in both directions along its length—used to construct furnaces. Perforated brick (Fig. 2.13 (g)) is well burned brick, but is not sound proof. Figure 2.13 (h) shows hollow bricks. These are about l/3rd the weight of normal bricks and are sound and heat proof, but are not suitable where concentrated loads are expected. Top most bricks course of parapets is made with coping bricks shown in Fig. 2.13 (i). These drain off the water from the parapets. Brick shown in Fig. 2.13 (j) is used at plinth level and for door and window jambs. Split bricks are shown in Fig. 2.13 (k, 1). When the brick is cut along the length, it is called queen closer and when cut at one end by half header and half stretcher, it is known as king closer.  Structural Clay Products 25 Fig. 2.13 Forms of Bricks 26 Building Materials 2.11 TESTING OF BRICKS About fifty pieces of bricks are taken at random from different parts of the stack to perform various tests. For the purpose of sampling, a lot should contain maximum of 50,000 bricks. The number of bricks selected for forming a sample are as per Table 2.3, (IS: 5454). The scale of sampling for physical characteristics is given in Table 2.4. Table 2.3. Scale of Sampling and Permissible Number of Defectives for Visual and Dimensional Characteristics No. of bricks For characteristics specified for For dimensional in the lot individual brick characteristics specified for No. of bricks to Permissible No. of group of 20 bricks–No. be selected defectives in the sample of bricks to be selected 2001 to 10000 20 1 40 10001 to 35000 32 2 60 35001 to 50000 50 3 80 Note: In case the lot contains 2000 or less bricks, the sampling shall be subject to agreement between the purchaser and supplier. Table 2.4. Scale of Sampling for Physical Characteristics Lot size Sampling size for compressive Permissible Warpage strength, breaking load, transverse No. of Sample Permissible No. strength, bulk density, water defectives for size of defectives absorption and efflorescence efflorescence 2001 to 10000 5 0 10 0 10001 to 35000 10 0 20 1 35001 to 50000 15 1 30 2 Note: In case the lot contains 2000 or less bricks, the sampling shall be subject to agreement between the purchaser and supplier. Dimension Test (IS: 1077): 20 pieces out of selected pieces (Table 2.3) are taken and are laid flat as shown in Fig. 2.14. The cumulative dimensions of the bricks should be as discussed in Sec. 2.5. The tolerances (Section 2.5) on the sizes of bricks are fixed by giving maximum and minimum dimensions, not on individual bricks but on batches of 20 bricks chosen at random. It follows from this method of measurement that batches are likely to contain, bricks outside the prescribed limit of tolerance. Such lots should be rejected to avoid complaints about the variation of perpends. Fig. 2.14 Measurement of Tolerances of Common Building Bricks  Structural Clay Products 27 Water Absorption Test (IS: 3495 (Part II)): The existence of minute pores confers marked capillary properties on brick ceramics. In particular all bricks absorb water by capillary action. The percentage of water absorption is a very valuable indication of the degree of burning. Vitrification, in the true sense, corresponds to such a dgree of compactness that the absorption of the brick is not over 3 per cent after 48 hours of immersion. It has been reported that for absorption less than 5 per cent danger from frost is negligible. Water absorption does not necessarily indicate the behavior of a brick in weathering. Low absorption (< 7 %) usually indicates a high resistance to damage by freezing, although some type of bricks of much higher absorption may also be frost resistance. Since expansive force of water freezing in the pores of a clay product depends upon the proportion of pore space occupied, the ratio of the absorption after 24 hours submersion to the absorption after boiling for 5 hours (C24/B5) appears to be a better criterion of resistance to freezing than the percentage of absorption. The durability of a brick may be tested by frost action, i.e., by alternate wetting and drying. The absorption test has long been considered a measure of durability, although the basis for this assumption is questionable. The suction rate of the brick at the time it is laid exercises a mark influence on the mortar bond. Too rapid withdrawal of water from the mortar by the brick produces a weak bond. The rate at which a brick absorbs water, frequently called its suction rate, maybe measured by immersing one face of the brick in water. The one minute water uptake (initial rate of absorprion) is taken as the suction rate. For long periods of immersion in theis test, the total wieght of water absorbed per unit area, w = AÖt where, A is the water absorption coefficient and t is the time elapsed in the test. The standard methods of finding the absorption value of the bricks are discussed below. If absorption by volume is desired it can be obtained by multiplying the weight percentage by the apparent specific gravity. 24 Hours Immersion Cold Water Test: Dry bricks are put in an oven at a temperature of 105° to 115°C till these attain constant mass. The weight (W1) of the bricks is recorded after cooling them to room temperature. The bricks are then immersed in water at a temperature of 27° ± 2°C for 24 hours. The specimens are then taken out of water and wiped with a damp cloth. Three minutes, thereafter it is weighed again and recorded as W2. W2  W1 The water absor