BSC2085L Anatomy-Physiology 1 Lab Quiz 1 Study Guide PDF

BSC2085L Anatomy-Physiology 1 Lab Quiz 1 Study Guide Anatomical position is a stance in which a person stands erect with the feet flat on the floor and close together, arms at the sides, and the palms and face directed forward. In anatomical position the forearm is supinated, that is rotated so the...

BSC2085L Anatomy-Physiology 1 Lab Quiz 1 Study Guide Anatomical position is a stance in which a person stands erect with the feet flat on the floor and close together, arms at the sides, and the palms and face directed forward. In anatomical position the forearm is supinated, that is rotated so the palm faces anteriorly. ANATOMICAL PLANES A sagittal plane passes vertically through the body or an organ and divides it into right and left portions. The sagittal plane that divides the body or organ into equal halves is also called a median (midsagittal) plane. A frontal (coronal) plane also extends vertically but it is perpendicular to the sagittal plane and divides the body or organ into anterior and posterior portions. A transverse (horizontal) plane passes across the body or an organ perpendicular to its long axis and divides it into superior and inferior portions. DIRECTIONAL TERMS Ventral- Toward the front or belly. Dorsal- Toward the back or spine. Cephalic- Toward the head or superior end. Superior- Above. Inferior- Below. Anterior- Toward the front. Posterior- Toward the back. Medial- Toward the midline or median plane. Lateral- Farther away from the midline or median plane. Superficial- Closer to the body surface. Deep- Farther from the body surface. Proximal- Closer to the point of attachment or origin. Distal- Farther from the point of attachment or origin. BODY REGIONS The axial region of the body consists of the head, neck (cervical region), and trunk. The axial region is further divided into the thoracic region above the diaphragm and the abdominal region below it. The appendicular region of the body consists of the upper and lower limbs (also called the appendages or extremities). The upper limb includes the arm (brachial region), forearm (antebrachial region), wrist (carpal region), hand (manual region), and fingers (digits). The lower limb includes the thigh (femoral region), leg (crural region), ankle (tarsal region), foot (pedal region), and toes (digits). *You will also need to study the pictures of the body regions (page 21 of the eBook) from our lab manual. THE MICROSCOPE *You will need to read the pages in your lab manual on the microscope (beginning on page 29 of the eBook). You should be familiar with the parts of the microscope and the functions each part serves. BODY CAVITIES AND MEMBRANES The cranial cavity contains the brain. The vertebral canal contains the spinal cord. The thoracic cavity is above the diaphragm and the abdominopelvic cavity is below it. The heart is located in the pericardial cavity. The heart is enfolded in a two-layered membrane called the pericardium. The visceral pericardium forms the external surface of the heart itself and the parietal pericardium (pericardial sac) lines the inside of the cavity wall. Each lung is located in the pleural cavity. Each lung is enfolded in a two-layered membrane called the pleura. The visceral pleura forms the external surface of the lung itself, and the parietal pleura lines the inside of the cavity wall. The abdominal cavity contains most of the digestive organs. The abdominopelvic cavity is lined with a two-layered serous membrane called the peritoneum. THE CELL The cell is surrounded by a plasma (cell) membrane composed of proteins and lipids. Nucleus- Usually the largest organelle and contains the cell’s chromosomes. The nucleus is surrounded by a double-unit membrane called the nuclear envelope. Rough endoplasmic reticulum- A system of flattened, parallel channels covered with granules called ribosomes enclosed in a unit membrane. The rough ER synthesizes proteins that are either packaged into lysosomes or secreted from the cell. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum- A system of tubular, parallel channels without ribosomes enclosed in a unit membrane. The smooth ER is continuous with that of the rough ER. The smooth ER detoxifies drugs and alcohol and produces most lipids of the cell. In skeletal and cardiac muscle, the smooth ER stores calcium ions with are released into the cytosol to trigger muscle contraction. Ribosomes- Small granules of protein and RNA (ribonucleic acid) found in the nucleolus, outer membrane of the nuclear envelope, rough ER, and in the cytosol. Ribosomes read the genetic code in messenger RNA and assemble amino acids into proteins according to that code. Golgi complex- A small system of channels enclosed in a unit membrane which synthesizes carbohydrates. The Golgi complex also receives newly synthesized proteins from the rough ER, sometimes modifies those proteins, and then packages them into membrane-bounded Golgi vesicles. Lysosomes- A package of enzymes surrounded by a single-unit membrane. Lysosomes use their enzymes to digest carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and other substrates. White blood cells use their lysosomes to digest phagocytosed bacteria. Lysosomes also digest and dispose non-vital organelles and other cellular components. Lysosomes also assist in autolysis (cell-suicide), the digestion of surplus cells by their own lysosomal enzymes. Mitochondria- Organelles specialized for synthesizing ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the body’s most important energy-transfer molecule. They are sometimes called the ‘powerhouses’ of the cell. Like the nucleus, a mitochondrion is surrounded by a double unit membrane. Centrioles- A short cylindrical assembly of microtubules, arranged in nine groups of three microtubules each. A pair of centrioles lie perpendicular to each other within a small, clear area of cytoplasm called the centrosome. Centrioles play a role in cell division. MEMBRANE TRANSPORT Osmosis is the net flow of water from one side of a selectively permeable membrane to the other. Since the solute particles cannot pass through the membrane pores, only water is moving, and water will always accumulate on the side f the membrane that has the most non-permeating solute. In other words, solute particles on one side of the membrane draw water away from the other side and water ALWAYS accumulates on the side of the membrane that has the most non-permeating solute. Tonicity is the ability of a solution to affect the fluid volume and pressure in a cell. If a solute cannot pass through a selectively-permeable membrane but remains more concentrated on side of the membrane than the other, it causes osmosis. Solutions consist of particles of matter called the solute, dissolved in a more abundant substance (usually water) called the solvent. Solutions can be classified as hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic. A hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of non-permeating solutes than the intracellular fluid (ICF). Cells in a hypertonic solution will lose water and shrivel (crenate). A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of non-permeating solutes than the ICF. Cells in a hypotonic solution will absorb water, swell, and may burst (lyse). An isotonic solution has the same concentration of non-permeating solutes as the ICF. Cells in an isotonic solution will not change shape or volume. Vesicular transport processes move large particles, droplets of fluid, or numerous molecules at once through the membrane, contained in bubblelike vesicles of membrane. Vesicular transport processes that bring matter into a cell are endocytosis, and those that release material from a cell are called exocytosis. Vesicular transport is a form of active transport; it requires an energy source (ATP). THE CELL CYCLE The cell cycle is divided into four main phases: G1, S, G2, and M. G1 (first gap phase) - A cell grows, synthesizes proteins, carries out its preordained tasks for the body. In fibroblasts, which divide every 24 hours, G1 lasts 8 to 10 hours. S (synthesis phase) – A cell makes a duplicate copy of its centrioles and all of its nuclear DNA. In fibroblasts, S takes 6 to 8 hours. G2 (second gap phase) – A cell finishes replicating its centrioles and synthesizes enzymes that control cell division. In fibroblasts, G 2 lasts 4 to 6 hours. M (mitotic phase/mitosis) – A cell replicates its nucleus and then pinches in two to form two new daughter cells. In fibroblasts, mitosis lasts 1 to 2 hours. Phases G1, S, and G2 are collectively called interphase. Mitosis has four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Prophase- The chromosomes shorten and thicken and become more compact. The nuclear envelope disintegrates and releases the chromosomes into the cytosol. The centrioles sprout elongated microtubules called spindle fibers. Some spindle fibers grow toward the chromosomes and become attached to the kinetochore on each side of the centromere. The spindle fibers then tug on the chromosomes. Metaphase- The chromosomes are lined up on the cell equator. Anaphase- The sister chromatids are cleaved from each other at the centromere. The daughter chromosomes then migrate to opposite poles of the cell, guided by the spindle fibers. Telophase- The chromosomes cluster on each side of the cell, and the rough ER produces a new nuclear envelope are each cluster. Telophase is the end of nuclear division but overlaps with cytokinesis, division of the cytoplasm into two cells. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM The skin also known as the integument, whereas the integumentary system consists of the skin and its accessory organs-the hair, nails, and cutaneous glands. The skin consists of two layers: a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium called the epidermis and a deeper connective tissue layer called the dermis. Below the dermis is another connective tissue layer, the hypodermis, which is not part of the skin but is customarily studied with it. The skin is classified as thick or thin based on the relative thickness of the epidermis. Thick skin covers the palms, soles, and corresponding surfaces of the fingers and toes. The rest of the body is covered with thin skin. The epidermis has five layers in thick skin. From deep to superficial, these layers are as follows: Stratum basale- single layer of cells resting on the basement membrane. Startum spinosum- consists of several layers of keratinocytes. Stratum granulosum- consists of 3 to 5 layers of flat keratinocytes. The cells of this layer contain dark-staining granues. Stratum lucidum- a thin, pale, featureless layer seen only in thick skin. The cells are packed with a clear protein named eleidin and have no nuclei or organelles. Stratum corneum- consists of up to 30 layers of dead, scaly, keratinized cells that form a durable surface layer. The dermis has two zones- the papillary layer and reticular layer. The papillary layer is the most superficial. It is a thin zone of areolar connective tissue in and near the dermal papillae. The reticular layer is deeper and much thicker. It is composed of dense irregular connective tissue. A hair is also known as a pilus. It is a slender filament of keratinized cells that grows from an oblique tube in the skin called a hair follicle. Nails are clear, hard, derivatives of the stratum corneum. Sweat glands are of two kinds, merocrine and apocrine. Apocrine sweat glands are the scent glands that respond especially to stress and sexual stimulation. They are not activated until puberty. Their ducts always opens into a nearby hair follicle. They are found on the regions of the body covered by pubic hair, axillary hair, and beard hair. Their function is to secrete sex pheromones. Merocrine sweat glands are found everywhere on the body. Their duct opens into a sweat pore on the skin surface. Their primary function is to cool the body, but they also excrete some of the same wastes as the kidneys. Sebaceous glands produce an oily secretion called sebum.