Brown Language Acquisition (Chapter 1) PDF

Chapter 1 ‫ در صحبت کردن‬،‫دو نفر از دبیرستان شروع به یادگیری زبان خارجی کردن و کالس رفتن (اسپانیایی و آلمانی) اما با وجود دانش باال‬.‫خیلی موفق نبودند‬ What do these two learners (page 1) tell you about learning a second language? Can you see that language fluency doesn’t happen overnight? And tha...

Chapter 1 ‫ در صحبت کردن‬،‫دو نفر از دبیرستان شروع به یادگیری زبان خارجی کردن و کالس رفتن (اسپانیایی و آلمانی) اما با وجود دانش باال‬.‫خیلی موفق نبودند‬ What do these two learners (page 1) tell you about learning a second language? Can you see that language fluency doesn’t happen overnight? And that involves learning a second culture, a whole new way of thinking, feeling, and acting? And that commitment, motivation, serious effort, and social interaction in a meaningful context are involved? Did those classrooms (page 1) provide optimal (most effective) communicative opportunities to use their second language (L2)? This book is about? Learning AND Teaching Teaching means? The Facilitation of Learning How to Facilitate? Understanding the intricate (complex) web of Principles that are spun together to affect (1) how and (2) why people learn/fail to learn an L2. Questions you might ask regarding second language acquisition (SLA): Learner Characteristics, Linguistic Factors, Learning Processes, Age and Acquisition, Classroom Instruction, Context, Purpose 1. Learner Characteristics Who are the learners that you are teaching? What is their ethnic, linguistic, and religious heritage? What are their native languages, levels of education, socioeconomic characteristics, and life experiences What are their intellectual capacities, abilities, and strengths and weaknesses? How would you describe the personality of a student of yours? 2. Linguistic Factors What is language? What is communication? What does it mean when we say someone knows how to use a language? What are the relevant differences (and similarities) between a learner’s first language (L1) and L2? What properties of the L2 might be difficult for a learner to master? 3. Learning Processes How does learning take place? Are there specific steps, mental or intellectual processes, and kinds of strategies to successful learning? What is the optimal interrelationship of mental, emotional, and physical processes for successful SLA? 4. Age and Acquisition Does the age of learning make a difference? Common observation tells us that children are “better” language learners than adults. Are they, really? What does the research show? How do developmental changes that occur between childhood and adulthood affect SLA? 5. Classroom Instruction (Different teaching methods, balance between fluency and accuracy, teacher and learner centered… all factors matter) In “natural” environments, do all people learn a language equally successfully? what about “instructed” SLA? What are the effects of varying methodological approaches, textbooks, materials, teacher styles, and institutional factors? Is there an optimal length of time required for successful mastery? 1 Chapter 1 6. Context (Immersion often leads to better results) Are the learners attempting to acquire the second language within the cultural and linguistic environment of the second language? Or are they focusing on a “foreign” language context in which the L2 is heard and spoken only in an artificial environment? How might the sociopolitical conditions of a particular country or its language policy affect the outcome of a learner’s mastery of a language? 7. Purpose (motivation) Why are learners attempting to acquire the second language? Are they motivated by the achievement of a successful career, or by passing a foreign language requirement, or by wishing to identify closely with the culture and people of the target language? Rejoicing In Our Defeats (finding value in situations that things don’t go as planned) By addressing such questions carefully and critically, you may actually achieve a surprising number of answers. Often being able to ask the right questions is more valuable than possessing storehouses of knowledge. At the same time, remember that you may not find final answers to all the questions. Therefore, many of these questions have somewhat uncertain answers, or at best, answers that must begin with the phrase, “it depends.” Answers must be framed in a context that can vary from one learner to another, and from one moment to another. The chapters of this book are designed to give you a picture of both the slipperiness (difficulties) of SLA and the systematic storehouse of reliable knowledge (organized collection of dependable knowledge) that is now available to us. That understanding must be eclectic: no single theory or hypothesis will provide a magic formula for all learners in all contexts. Your conclusions will need to be enlightened. And you’ll have to be a bit cautious: don’t accept every claim as truth just because someone eagerly emphasizes it to be factual. Thomas Kuhn (1970) referred to “normal science” as a process of puzzle solving in which part of the task of the scientist, in this case the teacher, is to discover the pieces and then to fit the pieces together. Some of the pieces of the SLA puzzle have been located and set in place. Others are not yet discovered, and the careful defining of questions will lead to finding those pieces. We can then undertake the task of fitting the pieces together into what Kuhn called a paradigm —an interlinking design, a model, or a theory of SLA. Language The text discusses various definitions and perspectives on language. According to Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (2003), language is a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings using conventional signs, sounds, gestures, or marks with understood meanings If you had read Steven Pinker’s The Language Instinct (1994), you would find a little more elaboration: Language is a complex, specialized skill, which develops in the child spontaneously, without conscious effort or formal instruction, is deployed without awareness of its underlying logic, is qualitatively the same in every individual, and is distinct from more general abilities to process information or behave intelligently (p. 18). 2 Chapter 1  (Language is a complicated and unique ability that develops naturally in children without them having to try hard or be taught in a formal way. Children just pick it up as they grow. When we use language, we don’t usually think about the rules behind it, it just happens automatically. Despite the differences in how people think or process information, everyone’s language ability is basically the same. Language is different from other skills, like problem-solving or intelligence, because it’s a special skill on its own.) On the other hand, Ron Scollon (2004, p. 272), also have included some mention of the creativity of language, the presumed primacy (priority) of speech over writing, and the universality of language among human beings. If we were to synthesize a number of definitions of language, we might come up with a composite definition represented in the eight items in the lefthand column of Table 1.1. Table 1.1 Language definition and related subfields of research Language Subfields of Research and Inquiry 1. …is systematic phonetics; phonology; morphology; syntax; discourse analysis; lexical analysis 2. …uses arbitrary symbols semiotics; semantics; philosophy & history of language; psycholinguistics 3. … uses symbols that are primarily vocal but phonetics; phonology; writing systems; may also be visual orthography; nonverbal communication 4. … uses symbols that have conventionalized semantics; pragmatics; sociolinguistics; meanings psycholinguistics; cognitive linguistics 5. …is used for communication sentence processing; pragmatics; discourse analysis; conversation analysis 6. …operates in a speech community sociolinguistics; sociocultural analysis; or culture pragmatics; dialectology; bilingualism 7. … is essentially human, but not limited to innateness; genetics; neurolinguistics; animal humans communication 8. …has universal characteristics Universal Grammar; innateness; emergentism; neurolinguistics; cross-cultural analysis Your understanding of the components of language determines to a large extent how you teach a language. 3 Chapter 1 Learning And Teaching The text defines learning and teaching and explores their complexities. learning is generally defined as “acquiring knowledge of a subject or a skill by study, experience, or instruction.” Oddly, an educational psychologist, like Slavin (2003), would define learning even more succinctly (briefly) as “a change in an individual caused by experience.” Similarly, teaching, which is implied in the first definition of learning, may be defined as “showing or helping someone to learn how to do something, giving instructions, guiding in the study of something, providing with knowledge, causing to know or understand.” Learning involves several components: 1. Acquisition or “adding” 2. The retention (preserval) of information or skills 3. The involvement of storage systems, memory, and cognitive organization 4. The application of active, conscious focus, and subconscious attention 5. Relatively permanent but subject to forgetting (stays with us for a long time but can still be forgotten) 6. The result of (reinforced) practice 7. A change in behavior These concepts can also give way to a number of subfields within the discipline of psychology: acquisition processes, perception, memory, motivation, learning styles, and reinforcement, making the concept as complex as language itself. Teaching is intrinsically tied to learning. It involves guiding, facilitating, and creating conditions for learning. A teacher’s understanding of how people learn shapes their philosophy, teaching style, approach, and methods. For instance, those who view learning as operant conditioning (e.g., B.F. Skinner) will emphasize reinforcement in teaching. If someone sees second language learning as deductive )‫(کل به جز‬ rather than an inductive )‫ (جز به کل‬process, they may use rules and charts. Essentially, a theory of teaching reflects a theory of learning “stood on its head.” Three Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition The text introduces three key questions in the study of language learning: 1) Is first language (L1) acquisition an innate process or similar to learning other skills? 2) Is language primarily a system of formal units or a means of social interaction? 3) Can second language acquisition (SLA) success be attributed to factors like comprehensible input or meaningful communicative contexts? These questions highlight areas of disagreement and lead to three perspectives or schools of thought in linguistics and psychology regarding Second Language Acquisition (SLA). While these perspectives follow a historical progression, the text notes that summarizing them risks oversimplification. 4 Chapter 1 Structural Linguistics and Behavioral Psychology In the 1940s and 1950s, the structural, or descriptive, school of linguistics focused on the scientific observation of human languages, emphasizing only publicly observable responses. Structuralists aimed to describe languages and identify their structural characteristics without applying preconceived notions across languages. Freeman Twaddell (1935), among others, underscored the mandate for the structural linguist to examine only overtly observable data, and to ignore any mentalistic theorizing that might entertain unobservable guesses, hunches, and intuition about language. Key to this approach was the idea that languages can vary infinitely and that language can be broken down into small, observable units that can be scientifically described, contrasted, and recombined. Psychologists of the time, such as B.F. Skinner and Charles Osgood, shared a similar perspective, advocating for the scientific method in studying human behavior. In their behavioral framework, concepts like "idea" or "meaning" were considered "explanatory fiction," and only observable, measurable responses were deemed legitimate. They argued that topics such as consciousness, thinking, and knowledge acquisition could not be studied within a behavioral approach due to the unreliability of observing these internal states. Generative Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology In the 1960s, generative-transformational linguistics, led by Noam Chomsky, emerged as a response to the limitations of purely observable language data. Chomsky argued that human language cannot be fully understood by just examining stimuli and responses or field linguist data. Generative linguists sought not only to describe language but to reach an explanatory level of understanding, finding a principled, universal basis for the grammar of each language, independent of any specific one. Chomsky, building on Ferdinand de Saussure’s distinction between parole (observable language use) and langue (underlying, unobservable language ability), criticized the structuralists' focus on performance and advocated for studying the deeper, nonobservable aspects of language competence. Similarly, cognitive psychologists like David Ausubel criticized behaviorism's oversimplification of complex mental phenomena. They emphasized the mind/brain as the core of human thought and learning, marking a shift toward a more profound exploration of psychological phenomena. Both generative linguists and cognitive psychologists were concerned with the “what” of human behavior but were far more focused on the "why" — understanding the underlying factors, whether innate, psychological, or environmental, that drive behavior. While the descriptive approach aimed at objective answers through observable data, the generative and cognitive approaches sought deeper insights into the unobservable aspects of human functioning, thus risking objectivity but potentially gaining more profound understanding. constructivism Piaget and Vygotsky, names often associated with Constructivism, which is a theoretical framework that gained significant attention in the late 20th century, integrates linguistic, psychological, and sociological perspectives, in contrast to the traditional disciplinary divides of the past. It has two main branches: cognitive and social constructivism. In cognitive constructivism, the focus is on how learners individually construct their own understanding of reality. This approach emphasizes that learners must actively discover and transform complex information to make it their own, requiring a more engaged role for students in their learning. (Slavin, 2003, pp. 257 – 258) 5 Chapter 1 Piaget, a key figure in cognitive constructivism, viewed learning as a developmental process that involves change, self-generation, and construction, with each new learning experience building on previous ones. This contrasts with the other perspectives, which focus more on observable behaviors and external stimuli. Social constructivism emphasizes the role of social interaction and cooperative learning in achieving meaningful learning outcomes. Research in this area often focuses on individuals engaged in social practices, collaborative groups, or even global communities. Lev Vygotsky, a key proponent of social constructivism, argued that children's thinking and meaning-making are socially constructed through their interactions with their environment. According to Vygotsky, learning is deeply rooted in social contexts and emerges from these interactions, highlighting the importance of social collaboration in cognitive development. One of Vygotsky's key concepts is the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which refers to the gap between a learner's current developmental state and their potential development. The ZPD involves tasks that a learner cannot perform independently but can accomplish with guidance from more competent peers or adults. This concept is central to social constructivism as it emphasizes the role of social interaction in learning. Vygotsky’s ZPD contrasts with Piaget’s theory, which views cognitive development as occurring in stages, where learning is dependent on the learner reaching a certain developmental stage. Piaget saw development as a solitary process, with social interaction only triggering development at the right time. In contrast, Vygotsky argued that social interaction is fundamental to cognitive development and rejected the idea of fixed stages. Mikhail Bakhtin also contributed to this view, suggesting that language is embedded in a social and cultural context and serves as a medium for communication. Constructivist perspectives, in many ways, build on earlier cognitive theories related to universal grammar, information processing, memory, artificial intelligence, and interlanguage systematicity. All three of the historical perspectives described in this section—structural/ behavioral, generative/cognitive, and constructivist—must be seen as important in creating balanced descriptions of second language acquisition. The chronology of the schools of thought illustrates what Kuhn (1970) described as the structure of scientific revolutions. A successful paradigm is followed by a period of anomaly (doubt, uncertainty) with all the professional insecurity that comes with it; and then finally a new paradigm, a novel theory, is put together. Table 1.2 Three perspectives on second language acquisition Schools of Thought Typical Themes Structural Linguistics/ Behavioral Description, Observable performance, Empiricism, Psychology Scientific method, Conditioning, Reinforcement Generative Linguistics/ Cognitive Acquisition, Innateness, Language competence, Deep Psychology structure, Interlanguage, Systematicity, Variability Constructivism Interactive discourse, Sociocultural factors, Construction of identity, ZPD, Cooperative learning, Discovery learning 6 Chapter 1 However, that new paradigm is never unequivocally “new.” The “borrowing” from one paradigm to the next underscores the fact that no single paradigm is right or wrong. Some truth can be found in virtually every critical approach to the study of reality. NINETEEN CENTURIES OF LANGUAGE TEACHING Language teaching in the Western world for two to three millennia primarily focused on Latin and Greek, using the Classical Method. This method emphasized grammar rules, memorization of vocabulary, translation of texts, and written exercises, with little attention given to oral language use. Languages were taught for scholarly purposes or to gain reading proficiency, not for communication. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as other languages were introduced, the Classical Method evolved into the Grammar Translation Method, which continued to emphasize grammar explanations, memorization, and translation exercises. (Prator & Celce-Murcia, 1979). The method became popular because it required minimal teacher expertise, and its tests were easy to construct and objectively score. However, as Richards and Rodgers (2001) noted, Grammar Translation lacks a theoretical foundation and does not connect to linguistic, psychological, or educational theory. LANGUAGE TEACHING IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Foreign language teaching underwent significant changes beginning with François Gouin's (1880) Series Method, which introduced revolutionary trends influenced by scientific research. These trends included debates about accuracy vs. fluency, separation vs. integration of skills, and teacher-centered vs. learner- centered approaches. Mitchell and Vidal (2001) metaphorically describe this evolution as a "major river" constantly fed by various sources over time. A notable example of this cyclical nature is the Audiolingual Method (ALM) of the 1940s and 1950s, which emphasized oral drills and borrowed from the Direct Method. ALM, influenced by behavioral learning theories, eventually faced criticism from cognitive psychologists who advocated for more focus on language rules and the cognitive aspects of learning. In modern language teaching, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has emerged as a key approach, blending previous methods and focusing on authentic use of language in the classroom. However, methods from the past are seen as too narrow and restrictive for the diverse needs of learners in various contexts. Contemporary pedagogical trends promote "principled eclecticism", a concept described by Mellow (2002), while Richards & Rodgers (2001) select methods based on context, recognizing that every learner, teacher, and situation is unique. 7 Chapter 1