British Constitution PDF

사일러스 BRITISH CONSTITUTION 사일러스 Please note ALL MATERIALS given, and to be given, in class are ONLY intended to FACILITATE students in their STUDY AND UNDERSTANDING of the subject matter. It is BY NO MEANS supposed to be the one-and-only MODEL/FORMAT/SAMPLE/CORRECT wa...

사일러스 BRITISH CONSTITUTION 사일러스 Please note ALL MATERIALS given, and to be given, in class are ONLY intended to FACILITATE students in their STUDY AND UNDERSTANDING of the subject matter. It is BY NO MEANS supposed to be the one-and-only MODEL/FORMAT/SAMPLE/CORRECT way of an ANSWER to questions on the subject matter. As reminded, STUDENTS are ENCOURAGED to embark on their own CREATIVITY in answering questions, be it EXAMINATION/COURSEWORK, TO EARN MORE MARKS! 사일러스 사일러스 BRITISH CONSTITUTION DEFINITIONS & PURPOSES OF CONSTITUTION CHARACTERISTICS OF BRITISH CONSTITUTION SOURCES OF BRITISH CONSTITUTION CONSTITUTIONAL STATUTES CODIFICATION 사일러스 DEFINITIONS Bradley & Ewing: “A document having a special legal sanctity which sets out the framework and the principal functions of the organ of government … declares the principles by which the state must operate” Colin Munro: “Body of rules and arrangements concerning the rules and arrangements of a country” 사일러스 PURPOSES Establishes basic constitutional framework Sets out 3 organs of government Lists down basic rights and freedoms Clarifies relationship between government and citizen Lays down national ideology Affirms particular values and goals 사일러스 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION Basic characteristics can be derived from KC Wheare’s submission of list of classifications of constitutions:- 1. Unwritten/uncodified x written/codified Not found in a single physical document/code Rare: United Kingdom, New Zealand and Israel 2. Unitary x Federal Government power is concentrated in a single-tier central government and implemented uniformly across the country 3. Flexible x Rigid Constitution can be amended with ease such as passing Acts to amend or repeal constitutional laws with simple majority 4. Monarchical x Republican Crown/ monarch is the head of state in the UK 5. Parliamentary supremacy x Constitutional supremacy Parliament is the supreme source of authority in the UK 6. Separation of powers x No separation of powers Government power separated in terms of functions and compositions into 3 branches 사일러스 Other characteristics – Parliamentary supremacy – Separation of powers – Rule of law }Three basic principles of the British constitution – Judicial independence: Judges interpret and apply the law uninfluenced by other organs of government – Parliamentary Executive: Members of the Executive are drawn from both Houses of Parliament 사일러스 FLEXIBLE X RIGID In a written constitution, amendments to be made to its provisions must satisfy a 2/3 majority (67%) in the Legislature This high threshold is required to safeguard the contents of the written constitution given it is the most basic and sacred law of the country This means a written constitution cannot be easily changed hence making it more rigid ie more difficult or less flexible to amend However, in an unwritten constitution, such as UK, it has two legal sources: statutes and case laws For statutes, constitutional amendments take place by passing legislations to amend or repeal certain Acts by Parliament – just like any other Act of Parliament – requires a lower threshold to be met that is a simple majority (51% or more) On the other hand, for case laws, effecting a change in judicial precedents can occur via judges overruling past decisions This shows laws in an unwritten constitution are relatively easier to amend – the procedures involved are more flexible and less rigid 사일러스 UNITARY X FEDERAL 사일러스 UNITARY X FEDERAL UNITARY SYSTEM OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT UNION (Kesatuan) NOUN FEDERATION (Persekutuan) Central (Pusat) MAIN Federal (Persekutuan) GOVERNMENT Regions/Departments/Provinces/ FIRST-LEVEL States/Regions/Departments/ Divisions/Territories DIVISIONS Provinces/Divisions/Territories Concentrated in central government POWER Clearly split/shared between federal (UK has undergone devolution) and state governments Laws are standardised across the First-level divisions have their own country legislatures and laws 3 organs of government seen in 3 organs of government seen in central government federal and state governments United Kingdom EXAMPLES United States Singapore Malaysia China Canada Saudi Arabia India South Africa Australia France Argentina Italy Nigeria New Zealand Germany 사일러스 UNITARY: BLUE FEDERAL: GREEN 사일러스 CHARACTERISTICS IN DEFINITIONS KC Wheare: “The British Constitution is the collection of legal rules and non-legal rules that govern the government in Britain” The Constitutional Unit of the University College of London: “The British Constitution has evolved over a long period of time, reflecting the relative stability of the British polity. It has never been thought necessary to consolidate the basic building blocks of this order in Britain. What Britain has instead is an accumulation of various statutes, conventions, judicial decisions and treaties which collectively can be referred to as the British Constitution. It is thus more accurate to refer to Britain's constitution as an 'uncodified' constitution, rather than an 'unwritten‘ one.” AV Dicey: “Every law of every description can be changed with the same ease and in the same manner” by Parliament – amendment or repeal Sir Ivor Jennings: “The British Constitution was not made, but was grown” Sir Ivor Jennings: “If a constitution means a written document, which states the creation and operation of government institutions, then obviously Britain does not have one.” 사일러스 CHARACTERISTICS IN CASE LAWS  Marbury v Madison US Supreme Court to decide whether it could review laws passed by Congress with regards to their constitutionality if they are void Chief Justice Marshall – written constitutions are intended to be fundamental laws of the state and have special legal status (agreed by Wheare, Munro, and Bradley & Ewing) All laws must be compatible (in line) with the constitution, and organs of government subjected to it and expected to carry out functions accordingly When talking about unwritten constitutions, however, academics seem to stress that such constitutions have no special legal status 사일러스  McCawley v R Privy Council to decider if Legislature of Queensland, Australia had power under Colonial Laws Validity Act 1965 to authorise appointment of a judge of the Supreme Court Two types of constitutions – those containing clauses requiring special procedures to amend them, another a special legislative assembly UK constitution has no special procedure for legislating – making, amending and repealing – constitutional law Uncontrolled constitution = no special procedure = UK constitution Lord Birkenhead – UK constitutional law is mostly rooted in historic development with no special legal status UK constitution changes in gradual and flexible fashion, and no special/formal procedures needed to effect change 사일러스  R (on the application of Miller) v Sec of State for Exiting the EU / Miller I Supreme Court held UK does not have one constitution in the form of a single coherent code of fundamental law that prevails over other sources of law, unlike most countries British constitutional arrangements evolved over time, pragmatically, in a principled manner, through a combination of statutes, events, conventions, writings and judicial decisions Supported AV Dicey’s view that the British constitution is the most flexible polity out there. 사일러스 SOURCES OF THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION British Constitution is most famously known for being unwritten or uncodified, or more accurately uncodified but largely written As such, it lacks the typical single physical document (X SPD) regarded as the Constitution and is found across many sources (FAMS) instead There are several ways to rationalise the various constitutional sources in UK, such as:- – Legal Case law: Miller I, Miller II, Factortame saga, Belmarsh case, Jackson v AG, AG v Jonathan Cape, Entick v Carrington, Case of Prohibitions, Case of Proclamations etc Statutory law: Constitutional statutes (explained next) – also evidence that UK constitution today is mostly found in written & legal sources = statute – Non-legal 3 founding principles: ROL, SOP & PS Constitutional conventions: Constitutional practices that concern constitutional players Codes: Ministerial Code, codes of conduct etc Academic views: AV Dicey, Ivor Jennings, Walter Bagehot, Hilaire Barnett, William Blackstone, Colin Munro, Baron Montesquieu, Andrew Le Sueur, Jo Murkens etc Other ways to understand the various sources: Written & unwritten sources, democratic and undemocratic sources etc 사일러스 CONSTITUTIONAL STATUTES Legislations of considerable importance in the constitutional framework of the UK which determine relationship between State and individual besides laying down basic rights and freedoms This category of legislations was rationalised by Laws LJ in Thoburn v Sunderland CC (2002) A non-exhaustive list, inter alia:- – Magna Carta 1215 (royal charter/agreement which was – Fixed Term Parliaments Act 2011 formally codified into statute 1297) – – Succession to the Crown Act 2013 800th anniversary celebrated in 2015 – Bill of Rights 1689 – European Union Referendum Act 2015 – Act of Settlement 1700 – European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 – Acts of Union 1707 & 1800 – European Union (Withdrawal – Parliament Acts 1911 & 1949 Agreement) Act 2020 – European Communities Act 1972 – Dissolution and Calling of Parliament – Human Rights Act 1998 Act 2022 – Devolution Acts 1998-2017 – Judicial Review and Courts Act 2022 – House of Lords Act 1999 – Constitutional Reform Act 2005 – Retained EU Law (Revocation and – Constitutional Reform and Reform) Act 2023 Governance Act 2010 Constitutional statutes from the aspect of THINK: How does the heading of the history of the evolution of Parliament ‘constitutional statutes’ sit with the idea of Parliamentary supremacy? 사일러스 CONSTITUTIONAL REFORMS OF THE FORMER LABOUR GOVERNMENT (1997-2010) 1979-PRESENT: Labour was previously in power from 1997 to 2010 – this is the ‘former Labour government’ Significance of that former Labour government: Instituted a number of constitutional reforms Reforms were implemented in the form of constitutional statutes HOW MANY CONSTITUTIONAL STATUTES PASSED BY THE FORMER LABOUR GOVERNMENT ARE THERE? CONSTITUTIONAL REFORM BACKGROUND 사일러스 Labour manifesto 1997: http://www.labour- party.org.uk/manifestos/1997/1997-labour- manifesto.shtml LABOUR WON GE OF 1997 WITH A LANDSLIDE (418/659 – 63.4% OF SEATS & MAJORITY OF 179) HOWEVER … worth noting that since 1979, regarded as start of a new era in UK, when Margaret Thatcher became PM (first PM born in 1920s/ after World War I) until today (Keir Starmer as current PM) – Labour has only been in power for 13 years (1997-2010; beginning 2024) 사일러스 STATUTE SIGNIFICANCE Magna Carta 1215 The first document to set out the principle that King and John (1199-1216): Arbitrary actions, government are not above the law King above the law, raising taxes to Limited the scope of royal authority whilst preventing the collect funds to fight in war King from exploiting his power - by establishing law as a Lost many wars, distrust between power in itself King and barons (nobles) surfaced Barons have the right to consult with and advise the King Charter needed to make peace in the Great Council – soon became known as Parliament between unpopular King and rebel barons Bill of Rights 1689 Bill of Rights 1689 – Glorious Revolution Refer alongside Petition of Right Asserted basic rights and liberties 1628 and Habeas Corpus Act 1679 Barred Roman Catholics from the throne GLORIOUS REVOLUTION Strengthened Parliamentary system of government ABSOLUTISM: Charles I (1625-1649) and constitutional monarchy Abused tax system, called Declared abdication of James II & VII (1685-88; last tonnage & poundage, also a Catholic monarch) and listed his misdeeds as King royal prerogative, that was (12 in total) discontinued by Parliament Statutory footing of invitation of William III (1689-1702) after 1625 & Mary II (1689-94) as co-monarchs to succeed James Raised money through Forced II & VII Loan in 1626 and those who Petition of Right 1628 – Absolutism refused to pay were imprisoned King no longer rules absolutely and is answerable to Imposed martial law in 1628 Parliament and forced citizens to feed, Put an end to the perception that the King has divine house and clothe the military right to rule along with free exercise of powers Habeas Corpus Act 1679 Defined and strengthened writ of habeas corpus Courts to examine the lawfulness of a prisoner’s detention – to prevent unlawful imprisonment 사일러스 STATUTE SIGNIFICANCE Act of Settlement 1700 Preceded by Bill of Rights 1689 on issue of succession to the Crown Reiterated/secured Protestant succession to the throne – bars Roman Catholic/anyone married to a Roman Catholic Parliament to decide on succession of the Crown Parliamentary consent needed for the Crown to engage in war (royal prerogative) Judges to hold office on good conduct not at the pleasure of the Crown (judicial independence) Strengthened parliamentary system of government and constitutional monarchy (no longer an absolute monarchy/divine right to rule) Acts of Union 1707 Legally established the nation of Great Britain Ratified the terms of Articles of Union 1706 Acts of Union 1800 Legally established the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Ratified 8 articles agreed by both British & Irish Parliaments on union 사일러스 STATUTE SIGNIFICANCE Parliament Act 1911 Removed power of House of Lords to reject Money Bills (in other words, the Budget) Replaced Lords’ power of veto (block/suspend) over other Bills with power of delay Reduced maximum length of a Parliament from 7 to 5 years Parliament Act 1949 Reduced duration of Lords’ power of delay from 2 years to 1 year 1911 and 1949 Acts to be read together as one – Parliament Acts 1911 & 1949 European Communities Allowed for accession of UK to the European Communities Act 1972 (EC) or enlargement of EC to include UK – subsequent to Initially repealed by ratification of Accession treaty European Union Gave effect to the Paris Treaty 1951 (founded ECSC) & Rome (Withdrawal) Act 2018 Treaty 1957 (founded EEC) – merged as EC in 1967 via Saved by European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Merger/Brussels Treaty – EC then became the European Union Act 2020 (EU) in 1993 via Treaty on EU/Maastricht Treaty Remained in force until Incorporated Community law (later EU law) into domestic law, end of Brexit transition such as treaties, regulations, directives and European Court of period - 31 December Justice (ECJ) case laws 2020 – thence automatically repealed Human Rights Act 1998 Adopted European Convention on Human Rights into First in series of Acts on domestic law constitutional reform by Today citizens can assert Convention rights in British courts the former Labour govt 사일러스 STATUTE SIGNIFICANCE Government of Wales Act 1998 Established National Assembly of Wales – today Similar 2006 Act created a Welsh called Senedd (legislature of Wales) Assembly Government (executive) drawn from the Assembly (legislature) and accorded absolute powers to legislate on 20 matters Wales Act 2014 renamed executive to Welsh Government Scotland Act 1998 Established Scottish Parliament and Scottish Further similar Acts in 2012 and Executive (today Government) 2016 devolved further powers Northern Ireland Act 1998 Established Northern Ireland Assembly and Northern Ireland Executive Set out powers of each organ with regards to transferred, excepted and reserved matters Greater London Authority Act 1999 Set up the Greater London Authority (GLA) or City Further powers accorded to the Hall GLA in a similar 2007 Act GLA consists of Mayor (executive role) and London Assembly (legislative role) Latter institution acts as a check and balance on the former Separate elections for each institution – 4-year term 사일러스 STATUTE SIGNIFICANCE House of Lords Act 1999 Halved overall membership of House of Lords, from 1,330 to 669 Removed right of Hereditary Peers to sit in the House (allowed 92 to remain interim) and created 10 new Life Peers Majority of Lords today are Life Peers Constitutional Reform Act 3 main constitutional reforms – to enhance 2005 separation of powers:- Lord Chancellor: Only a member of Cabinet (usually the Justice Secretary; no more head of judiciary and Speaker of House of Lords) House of Lords: Only has legislative function (previous judicial function – highest appellate court/apex court – now vested in newly-created Supreme Court) Judicial Appointments Commission: Selects candidates to fill vacant judicial positions (today only answerable to the Queen; no longer appointed by Queen on Prime Minister and Lord Chancellor’s advice) 사일러스 STATUTE SIGNIFICANCE Constitutional Reform and 2 main reforms towards government and Governance Act 2010 administration (governance):- Follow-up legislation to 2005 Act Civil service: Civil service put down in Passed shortly before Parliament statute for the first time – including the Civil dissolved for 2010 GE (resulted in Service Commission – Minister of Civil government change Labour to Service to manage the civil service – Conservative) Minister to issue a Civil Service Code (code of conduct) – appointment and regulation of civil service is no longer a royal prerogative Foreign affairs: Ponsonby Rule is now law – treaties to be presented before Parliament 21 days before ratification – the convention is no longer a royal prerogative Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 Fixed the period between GEs – 5 years Repealed by Dissolution and Next GE date falls on First Thursday, May, 5th year Calling of Parliament Act 2022 after the previous GE – with exceptions Implemented in the 2015 and 2017 GEs Succession to the Crown Act 2013 Amended Bill of Rights 1689 and Act of Settlement 1700 Ended succession by male primogeniture – now the eldest female issue can be first in line to the throne, no more displaced by youngest male issue Ended disqualification of those who marry Roman Catholics from line of succession 사일러스 STATUTE SIGNIFICANCE European Union Referendum Act Paved the way for the referendum on British 2015 membership in the EU to occur Referendum took place 23 June 2016: 33.5 million votes cast, 72% turnout, 51.9% voted Leave European Union (Withdrawal) Act Repealed European Communities Act 1972 2018 Mandated requirement of Parliament’s approval for Withdrawal Agreement between UK and EU Severed EU law as a source of law in UK – EU can no longer legislate for the UK Retained certain EU law – laws expected to continue applying in UK beyond Brexit European Union (Withdrawal Ratified the Withdrawal Agreement as part of Agreement) Act 2020 domestic law First legislation tabled before The Withdrawal Agreement is a European instrument hence the need for adoption into Parliament after GE 2019 UK law Dissolution and Calling of Repealed Fixed Term Parliaments Act 2011 Parliament Act 2022 Reverted the constitution to its prior position – Queen to dissolve Parliament on the advice of the Prime Minister (royal prerogative) Prime Minister can now call GE any time before Parliamentary term (5 years) expire 사일러스 CONSTITUTIONAL STATUTES: JACKSON V AG Hunting Act 2004: Legislation to end fox-hunting – ‘hunting of wild mammals with dogs’ Passed without approval of House of Lords as allowed by Parliament Act 1949 Relevant provision in 1949 Act: After 1 year has passed without House of Lords’ approval, Bill is permitted to be passed and receive Royal Assent Validity of 2004 Act, and indirectly 1949 Act, was challenged Validity of 1949 and 2004 Acts upheld by House of Lords Basis is Parliament Act 1911: After 2 years have passed without House of Lords’ approval – Bill can be passed and receive Royal Assent 1911 Act was subsequently amended by 1949 Act – upon which legislation of 2004 Act is based upon As such, given 1911 Act valid – 1949 Act valid – 2004 Act valid 1911 Act to be acknowledged as binding – subsequently the same for 1949 Act – 2004 Act also equally valid and binding 사일러스 Lord Bingham held that the Parliament Acts were ‘enacted law’ hence the 2004 Act, passed according to the requirements of the Parliament Acts had been lawfully enacted and is valid and enforceable Parliament Acts relate more to restricting power of the Lords to affect legislation and less on empowering the Commons There is nothing to stop or limit Parliament from legislating via Parliament Acts ie passage of law without approval of House of Lords (relate to Parliamentary Supremacy) Parliament can be bound by procedural requirements placed upon them by previous Parliaments as per Parliament Acts, and they are to be accepted as valid unless repealed Constitutional statutes such as Parliament Acts will continue to remain as sources to the constitution, to be interpreted, applied and upheld by courts accordingly, without challenge, unless repealed by Parliament Parliament rarely repeals constitutional statutes but there is nothing in the way of the supreme legislature in the UK that can prevent it from doing so Rare occasions of repeal of such statutes seen in:-  European Communities Act 1972: Repealed by European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018  Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011: Repealed by Dissolution & Calling of Parliament Act 2022 More on this case law to be studied in Parliamentary Sovereignty 사일러스 TREND OF LAW-MAKING Two primary legal sources of law: Statutes (Acts of Parliament) and case laws (judicial decisions) With the passing of time, particularly after the 17th century and during the Industrial Revolution, passing of Acts of Parliament (be it constitutional statutes or not) is becoming more and more frequent This could also signify the fact that Parliament is the supreme law-making body in the UK and the trend solidifies its sovereignty even more Parliament is indeed free, supreme and ever sovereign to legislate on any subject matter, be it devolution, European Union membership and even the limits of its tenure FOR TREND, CHECK OUT: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga 사일러스 TODAY: 21ST CENTURY INTERWAR & WWII POST-WWII & DECOLONISATION WWI & INTERWAR 사일러스 SHOULD THE UK CONSTITUTION BE CODIFIED? About For Against 사일러스 HOW TO COFIDY? Balance the wide array of sources against a possibly too complex, really detailed and technical, and overwhelming document Suggested alternatives by John Kwan:-  A constitution that entrenches fundamental human rights – why?  A constitution that expresses the philosophy of separation of powers – why?  A new Bill of Rights focusing only on rights – why?  A constitution that entrenches power of judiciary – interpretation role – why? 사일러스 FOR CODIFICATION Easier to instill public awareness about the constitution – organs of government and human rights Ensures better protection of human rights and fundamental liberties Ensures clarity, certainty, consistency – 3 organs of the state Greater check and balance between 3 arms of government Lord Hailsham: Overcomes elective dictatorship – unchecked Parliamentary supremacy – MPs are elected by the people Reduces blurred separation of Legislature and Executive – Parliamentary executive 사일러스 Protects and ensures better judicial independence – R v A (No. 2) – rape trial – defendant wants to cross examine rape victim on past sexual behaviour – YJCEA 1999 does not allow this – prevent humiliation – defendant claiming breach of Article 6 – courts held such prevention of questioning is breached Article 6 – up to Parliament to amend the law – not the courts – judges only interpret the law – only Parliament can make/amend law Sets limits on (decentralises) powers of Parliament (legislature) – Burmah Oil v Lord Advocate -courts allowed compensation for damages during the war - conflicts War Damages Act 1965 – does not provide for such compensation – Act has a retrospective effect – war occurred in 1940s – should law be retrospective or prospective? – Official Secrets Act 1911 – passed in 24 hours – legislated reversal of burden of proof – guilty until proven innocent – wide scope and arbitrary powers – trials can be held in secret – Such limitations, however, could impede the very essence of Parliamentary supremacy 사일러스 Jack Straw: "We can learn a great deal from the US example, and particularly with regard to the enviable notion of civic duty that seems to flow so strongly through American veins. It is made much easier to fulfil your civic duty when you have a clear sense of to what you belong, and what is expected from you … In the UK, many duties and responsibilities already exist in statute, common practice or are woven into our social and moral fabric. But elevating them to a new status in a constitutional document would reflect their importance in the healthy functioning of our democracy." 사일러스 AGAINST CODIFICATION An expense – time and money  Kwan: Could produce a lengthy and subsequently impractical document  Rodney Brazier: A diverse set of constitutional statutes are already in place  Bipartisan consensual support needed – can take up to 20 years – reconciling political differences  Referendum possibly needed if reforms are very important eg EU membership William Hague: Internal stability and democratic accountability already in existence  Prevents creation of too strict separation of powers – can hinder delivery of proper government and administration if too strict/technical 사일러스 Rigid – flexibility becomes deprived  Some rules must remain unwritten to change with time eg conventions  Foley: Codification of all rules might result in a freeze to the constitution  Hilaire Barnett: Old/unused conventions can be discarded with ease and constitutional changes occur without much formalities Judicial tyranny  Courts gain supremacy – judges are not elected by the people  Kwan: Power of interpretation should not be invested in judiciary made up of unelected judges 사일러스 No historical justification – revolution/independence/defeat in war/collapse in system  ONLY EXCEPTION: English Civil War – Oliver Cromwell – Lord Protector (not a King) – English Commonwealth (not a kingdom/monarchy) – Instruments of Government (written constitution of the Commonwealth)  Former colonies of the UK, almost all have written constitution upon independence Bias – time and political  Could enshrine present state of affairs of the country than what is needed for the long term – future uncertainties  Preference given to aspirations of current ruling party Famous saying: If it ain’t broken, why fix it? – AV Dicey: British constitution is the most flexible polity out there Barnett: Difference between types of constitution is of form (on the surface) not substance  Fact is not the UK is better off with a codified constitution, but just that UK does not need not one Respect/regard shown by government and citizens to the constitution is what matters more 사일러스 HISTORICAL EVENTS & WRITTEN CONSTITUTIONS Countries that have experienced foreign rule, revolution and regime change, once on their own – independence or self-rule/self-government, it has been necessary to start from scratch or begin from first principles This comes by constructing new state institutions and defining in detail their relations with each other and their citizens All of that usually culminates in the adoption of a written constitution Most obvious illustration: former British colonies such as Malaysia – Malayan independence in 1957 followed by Malaysian formation in 1963 사일러스 사일러스 TO SUM IT UP: CHARACTERISTICS Unwritten/uncodified Flexible Monarchical Unitary Parliamentary supremacy Separation of powers Rule of law Judicial independence Parliamentary Executive 사일러스 FURTHER READING About Public Law Basics Public Law LMS – Introduction: British Constitution – Lecture Notes Hilaire Barnett – Part I Chapter 1: Introducing Constitutional Law Chapter 2: Sources of the Constitution Le Sueur, Sunkin, Murkens – Part I Chapter 1: Introduction to Constitutional Fundamentals Chapter 2: The Constitutional Rulebook