Britain Transformed 1918-79 PDF

BRITAIN TRANSFORMED 1918-79 1918-22 Lloyd George Coalition 1918 Election Following the war, Lloyd George was a very popular figure but he did not have a political party after WW1. Therefore the conservatives backed him through the ‘coupon’ scheme which meant that liberals relied on conservative su...

BRITAIN TRANSFORMED 1918-79 1918-22 Lloyd George Coalition 1918 Election Following the war, Lloyd George was a very popular figure but he did not have a political party after WW1. Therefore the conservatives backed him through the ‘coupon’ scheme which meant that liberals relied on conservative support and couldn’t make big changes. Conservative (LG) 345 38.4% Liberals (LG) 133 13.4% Labour and non LG 49 Sinn Fein 73 4.6% Ireland and Independence Meanwhile, there was conflict in Ireland: NE Ireland were protestants who didn’t want independence and S Ireland were catholic and wanted ‘Home Rule’. The IRA wanted complete independence and this led to the 1916 Easter Rising. In the election, Sinn Fein won 73 seats and this led to increased power in the hands of Lloyd George conservatives rather than Lloyd George himself. Industrial Relations There were labour shortages as a result of the war and industry was lagging behind other countries as they did not undergo the Second Industrial Revolution (1870 onwards in chemicals, consumer goods and engineering). There was a trade disruption during the war and other industries were becoming more competitive. The coal industry wanted nationalisation through syndicalism principles however conservatives don’t want this and set up the Sankey Commission to delay the issue. Economics Inflation is high (from 1918-9 it was at 50%) meaning that people with savings do well but home and business owners do well. Some people wanted a return to the Gold Standard which would cause a deflationary cycle where wages, spending, taxes and therefore public spending decreased. Additionally, War Debt was a pressing concern despite the fact that the Government could pay back the money slowly. The Geddes Axe was implemented and involved Government cuts to public spending. It is a clear example of Gladstonian economics and Retrenchment as they focus on balancing the budget rather than investment to stimulate the economy. The Labour party are annoyed by these cuts but the conservatives are pleased with the Gladstonian approach. National Insurance The post-war boom led to a bust as the British market is not competitive and the US imposed tariffs so the export market decreased. Due to high unemployment, a policy of national insurance was extended to 12 million people. There was an assumption that unemployment would be cyclical and therefore people could only claim for a certain amount of time. Addison Housing Act 1919 Christopher Addison = Minister of Health. The Housing and Town Planning Act cleared slums and began to encourage the building of low rent houses for the working class. The Addison Housing Act 1919 required clearance of slums and paid a subsidy to councils; however, the building industry ripped them off and built few houses for a large price. 1922 Election Lloyd George Fund: He sold honours and titles to businessmen to raise money for the next election. He sold knighthoods, OBEs and Baronetcy and shared the proceeds with the conservatives. Cabinet Office: The prime minister is ‘first among equals’ but people believed he was centralising control through the cabinet office and the conservatives became annoyed about this. Chanak Crisis: The Treaty of Sevres gave Turkey’s land to Greece and when Turkey tried to take it back Lloyd George threatened war without consulting the conservatives, cabinet or dominions. Charlton Club: This meeting was called between the conservatives and Austen Chamberlain spoke in favour of Lloyd George whereas Stanley Baldwin and Bonar Law believed they should ditch him and they voted to end the coalition. Conservatives 330 37% Labour 142 29.4% LG Liberals 47 9.2% Other Liberals 69 19.9% This election was tough for the liberals due to the previous split between pro-Home Rule (Asquith) and liberal unionists (LG). In this election, Bonar Law led the party and he adopted a free trade policy. However following his retirement, Stanley Baldwin became party leader and due to his protectionist ideology, he lost the 1924 election that he called. 1922-4 Conservative led by Bonar Law Chamberlain’s Housing Act 1923 This changed Addison’s act so that the subsidy was £6 per year for 20 years for each property. This encouraged councils to build lots of houses and bulk buy resources because they had to manage the funds. Economics The US were unwilling to reduce Britain’s war debt as it gave them a competitive edge in becoming the Global Reserve Currency where they could control international trade and it made loans cheaper for them. In the 20s the pound was the Global Reserve Currency and the US wanted to replace it with the dollar so they could demand repayment in dollars. 1923 Election Conservatives 258 38% Labour 191 30% Liberals 159 29% There was a hung parliament and despite the conservative majority, Ramsay McDonald took on the role of prime minister with liberal support. The votes moved in favour of labour to prevent protectionist policies. This was the first time labour had won and they needed to prove they were capable of running the country and disprove the fears of communism and revolution surrounding them. 1924 Labour led by Ramsay McDonald Social policies Labour eased restrictions on unemployment benefits to accommodate structural unemployment. They also provided scholarships to send working-class children to grammar schools. Working-class Housing Act 1924 Wheatley raised the subsidy to encourage working-class houses to be built. The subsidy became £9 per year for 40 years and the amendment that these houses had to be affordably rented rather than sold. 1924 Election Ramsay McDonald was viewed as a class traitor by the labour party as he wasn’t acting in a traditional working-class manner. He was a realist and believed that in order to progress politically, the labour party needed to prove it was capable. He didn’t like to delegate responsibility, especially in foreign affairs. The Campbell Case: Campbell encouraged soldiers not to open fire on workers and people saw this as a revolution. Labour withdrew the prosecution and there was a vote for an enquiry which McDonald saw as a direct challenge to his government. Zinoviev Letter Crisis: Chief of Comintern provided the British Communist Party with money and this letter encouraged members to infiltrate the labour party in order to bring down the state and this forgery was damaging to Labour’s image. It didn’t help that the party loaned the Soviet Union £30 million in return for compensation for British Assets. Conservative 412 46.8% Labour 151 33% Liberals 40 17.6% 1924-9 Conservative led by Stanley Baldwin Baldwin had an image of being ‘lazy’ and this was crafted so that he appeared traditional and comforting rather than a dictator like Lloyd George. After the 1923 election, he took on free trade policies in order to appeal to the public. Within the Government there was: - Austen Chamberlain = Foreign secretary - Winston Churchill = Chancellor - Neville Chamberlain = Minister of Health Economics In 1925 Churchill made the return to the Gold Standard meaning that the pound was worth a fixed value in gold in order to slow inflation by causing a deflationary cycle. There are old fashioned views that the gold standard will improve the economy and improve the standard of living back to its pre-war levels. It was fixed at $4.86 when before the Gold Standard it was $3.40 making exports more expensive as the pound was worth 20% more. Overall this led to budget cuts as international trade decreased (but empire exports increased). Local Government Act 1929 This gave local authorities extra duties such as power over roads, public health, maternity, child welfare, etc. It gets rid of the Poor Law (including workhouses) into municipal and council hospitals. As a result of the lost income from the poor law, the government paid the authorities £40 million in order to cover extra duties. This meant that councils became overly dependent on the government. Central Electricity Board 1926 The Central Electricity Board is a quango organisation (connected to the government but not controlled by them) that encourages the building of power stations and power grids in order to speed up electricity in homes and the modernisation of industry. The BBC The BBC was established in 1922 by radio manufacturers and households had to pay a radio licence. And in 1926 the BBC was given a Royal Charter making it a public corporation rather than a company. It had a monopoly on broadcasting. Welfare changes Unemployment support could now be claimed indefinitely proving they were alternatively seeking employment rather than for the 2-16 week period. The Old Age Pension 1925 could now be claimed from 65 rather than 70 and became claimable for workers and their widows who contributed to the scheme. Representation of the People Act 1928 This made it so that everyone over 21 could now vote. It was discovered that women weren’t voting radically so by giving women the vote, conservatives gained voters and solidified this pattern of voting. This generation of women were the ‘surplus women’ as many were unmarried and had careers/education instead. The General Strike of 1926 Following the decline of the coal industry trade unions expanded. This involved the construction of craft unions (skilled workers) and general unions (unskilled workers) and trade unions becoming more established. MFGB = Miners Federation of GB, NUR = National Union of Railwaymen, NTWF = National Transport Workers Federation, TGWU = Transport and General Workers Union. Following the lack of results from the Sankey Commission, there was the establishment of the Samuel Commission while Baldwin maintained existing wage levels through a subsidy. The result of the commission was: better working conditions, lengthening of the working day, and wage restrictions. As a result, TUC coordinated a general strike with the motto “not a minute on the day, not a penny off the pay”. The government and trade unions are prepared to stop the strike however following the Daily Mail story strike by print workers, the strike is forced to begin. During the strike, the TUC spent £4 million compared to the Government's £433 million. There was the OMS (Organisation for Management of Supply coordinated middle-class workers to help maintain essential services. A deal is made so that strikers get their jobs back, however, miner’s continue to strike by themselves. After the failure, union membership declined and moderate union leaders emerged (e.g. Bevin). Trade Disputes Act 1927 prevented sympathetic strikes, banned secondary picketing and reforms the political levy so that union members have to ‘contract in’ to the political levy to the labour party, 1929 Election Due to high unemployment Labour is voted in as the Conservatives base their campaign on preventing socialism rather than conquering unemployment. There is a different ‘hung parliament’ than 1923 as Labour have more seats than the conservatives yet Labour relies on Liberal support. Conservative 260 38.2% Labour 288 37.1% Liberal 59 23.4% 1929 Labour led by Ramsay McDonald Philip Snowden = Chancellor with Gladstonian ideas JH Thomas, Oswald Moseley and George Lansbury = deal with unemployment Margaret Banfield = First woman in cabinet Coal Mines Act 1930 Reduced the working day from 8 to 7.5 hours and employers had to set a minimum wage. They cannot nationalise the mines or remove the Trades Dispute Act so they establish a commission to phase out unprofitable mines. Greenwood’s Housing Act 1931 This extends on previous acts and reintroduces the subsidy in order for council houses and building slums. This is successful to an extent. Education Bill 1930 There is a plan to reform the education system however due to lack of Catholic support (due to faith schools not getting government funding). They wanted to raise the school leaving age to 15 and create continuation schools. London Transport Bill 1931 They wanted to create a public corporation responsible for providing cheap and efficient bus and underground transport for London’s population. This became law in 1933. Great Depression In America, the Wall Street Crash and Great Depression leads to decreased international trade for Britain and the result is increased unemployment. Moseley suggests £42 million for public works programs but only a fraction is spent due to Snowden. The May Committee focused on low tax revenues rather than unemployment solutions so the suggestions are 30% unemployment benefit cuts and reduced pay for teachers, civil servants, etc. These cuts were unpopular and voted against in the cabinet. The cabinet votes 11-9 for the 10% unemployment benefit cuts. The Government decided to resign however McDonald became PM of a national government and the party saw him as a traitor. 1931 National Government led by Ramsay McDonald The national government is dominated by conservatives and American Banks trust in this more so they loan Britain £80 million as long as the government makes the cuts suggested by the May Committee. They make £70 million in cuts, raise income tax, cut public sector wages 5-10% and cut unemployment 10%. Invergordon Mutiny The military are displeased with these cuts and the Navy stage a mutiny in Invergordon. The result is the cuts are halved and it looks like they have lots of control so people sell their pounds and the value declines further. Abandon Gold Standard On the 19th of September 1931, the government abandoned the Gold Standard and the value of the pound changed from $4.86 to $3.40 making exports cheaper and more competitive. Social Class Social class can be divided into upper, middle and working classes. The upper class is composed of aristocracy, gentry and business owners. This category makes money through land ownership however the increased importation of food (60%) and the increased tax (Inheritance and Estate Duty) meant that this class struggled in the 20s and many country homes were sold. The main differences between the middle and working classes are property ownership and the types of jobs. As technology advances, there is less demand for unskilled workers which has an impact on the working class and the increased income tax has an impact on the middle class. Women During this period, women gained the right to vote however women still weren’t prominent in politics due to traditional gender roles and the family. Nancy Astor (first female MP), Edith Summerskill (promoted women’s issues) and Margaret Bondfield was the first female in cabinet (McDonald). Leisure, Culture And Entertainment Crime fiction was incredibly popular in this period especially Agatha Christie as they were accessible to the working and middle class. They were cheaply produced (as the first paperbacks) and sold at train stations. At this time death is relatable and less of a taboo topic allowing the genre to flourish. Radio was established by the BBC’s monopoly over broadcasting. The aim was to inform, educate and entertain and this was John Reith’s responsibility so initially he aimed to promote highbrow culture. Broadcasting was strict and regulated, broadcasters spoke the King’s English and dressed very smartly. This began to be relaxed in the 30s and in 1933 Radio Luxembourg began to broadcast and gain popularity. Cinema was also incredibly popular but was seen as a ‘flea pit’ due to the unsafe conditions caused by flammable nitrate. WW1 changed these perceptions and allowed cinema to flourish. The films were mainly produced in Hollywood due to the sunny setting needed to combat the lack of internal lighting. The 1913 British Board of Censors established a voluntary code and the 1927 Cinematograph Films Act (Quota Act) ensured British films were made however these were typically B films = Quota Quickies. 1931-35 National Government by McDonald 1931 Election The National Government was not expected to last long; it would either fail and fall or succeed and become redundant. However, the impending threat of European dictatorships led to the continuation of the National Government into the 1931 election. Cabinet began as 4 labour, 4 tories and 2 liberals but became 11 Tories and 9 others after the election. Conservative 473 Liberal and Labour Nationals 48 Total of National Gov. 554 67% Labour 52 Liberals 33 Economic Policy The National Government was formed to tackle the economic issues following the Great Depression. There was a 10% cut in expenditure including public sector wages and unemployment benefits. The devaluation of the pound made exports cheaper and helped boost trade. There were also low-interest rates (2% until 1939) to encourage private enterprise as it made people more willing to borrow. Protectionist ideology began to be embraced. The Import Duties Bill imposed a general 10% duty on all goods except those from the empire. The 1935 Special Areas Act made £2 million available in aid for depressed areas especially the industrial north. It encouraged 44000 to move towns and retrained 30000. Overall the government continued to reject Keynesian economic policies however despite this 2.7 million homes were built and industrial production was 11% higher than in 1929. Unemployment Act 1934 Neville Chamberlain reformed the unemployment benefits system by introducing ‘means testing’ which was widely hated. Every 26 weeks a means test was required in order to claim benefits and was explained as a way of removing politics from benefits but this ultimately failed due to protests about this new system. Foreign Policy There were some problems arising involving India as Nationalists began to demand independence. The 1935 Government of India Act allowed the government of provinces but not central control of the government. There were also problems within Europe with another world war brewing. Many people realised how destructive this would be and took pacifist stands. The first aggressive action was Japan’s invasion of Manchuria (31) and the collapse of Germany’s democracy in 1933 was also cause for concern. A ‘stresa front’ was formed to deter rearmament but was unsuccessful as the nations disputed. 1935-7 Wartime Coalition led by Baldwin 1935 Election Conservative 432 53.7% Labour 154 37.9% Liberal 21 6.7% In the lead up to this election, the Labour party went through some changes including the establishment of a by-election insurance fund to subsidise the election fees in poorer areas. A membership drive recruited 1000 new members and policy changes left them as anti-appeasement. 1937-39 Wartime Coalition led by Chamberlain Appeasement Chamberlain was eager to avoid war and consequently, the Czech Crisis was followed with a policy of appeasement. This meant that Germany was given Sudetenland to prevent a conflict from arising. The public supported this policy however there was little holding Germany to the agreement. Churchill and the Labour party were critical of the policy. Chamberlain was criticised for his uninspiring handling of the war and was replaced by Churchill in 1939. 1939-45 Wartime Coalition led by Churchill Ernest Bevin was Minister of Labour and organised the war industries such as output targets and negotiations with bosses, managers and unions. Anthony Eden was Secretary of State for War (40) and Foreign Secretary (40-45) and attended international conferences. Stafford Cripps, Herbert Morrison and Hugh Dalton were also key figures. Keynesian Economics Total war increased the demand on Keynesian policies and overspending in the short term to provide prosperity and jobs. This wasn’t entirely intentional. Following the war, the depression ended but National debt was £3500 million. Growth Of State Power Herbert Morrison was Minister of supply (40), Home Secretary (40-45) and oversaw the defence of London during the Blitz. Hugh Dalton was Minister of Economic Warfare (40-42) and President of the board of trade (42-45) including the scheme of rationing to combat falling coal production. The Emergency Powers Act increased state power such as rationing, restrictions on press freedom, suspended legal rights, conscription, working conditions and control of exchange rates. Total War increased women’s involvement as 45% of women were involved in war service and 93% of men (14-64 years old). Rationing and Home Grown food drives began to make up for lost food imports. Items that weren’t rationed ran out quickly and long queues formed in anticipation of deliveries. On top of this people were encouraged to ‘make do and mend’. To improve diet mothers and their children were provided with cod liver oil, orange juice and milk to provide extra nutrients. Black market goods also became available. The Blitz caused damage to 3.5 million homes and evacuation was used to protect children in London. Atlantic Charter 1941 Churchill and Roosevelt agreed on the construction of a better world following the war. This became the basis of the United Nations. Beveridge Report 1942 Beveridge was commissioned to plan for the future following the war. There were 5 key principles: want, ignorance, idleness, squalor and disease. This meant that full employment and a national insurance scheme without a means test was important. Women There were a few advancements between the wars. For example, the 1922 Criminal Law Act which raised the age of consent from 13 to 16 and the 1937 Matrimonial Causes Act which extended the terms under which a couple could divorce. The role of women through the war led to the establishment of the Women’s Consultative Committee which managed female participation in the war including equal compensation, increased employment (5 million in 1939 to 7 million in 1943). Leisure and Travel The Holidays with Pay Act 1938 increased seaside holidays and parks such as Butlins. The Youth Hostel Association 1929 and Ramblers Association 1931 were also key to this change. Alongside this, car ownership increased dramatically and in 1934 Driving tests were introduced. The Road Traffic Act 1930 and 1934 introduced the highway code and 30mph speed limits in towns. The establishment of British Airways 1935. Race and Immigration Antisemitism saw an increase in the interwar years and the BUF led by Moseley provided a vehicle for this racist hatred. The Battle of Cable Street 1936 occurred when the BUF marched through the East End targeting communists and Jews. As a result, the BUF could no longer march in uniform. The ‘Colour Problem’: due to the sheer minority, most white people viewed themselves as superior. The Special Alien Seamen Act increased this attitude. There were councils and committees to promote understanding and cooperation such as the League of Coloured People. These were formed to tackle the ‘Colour Problem’ with a Pan Africanism attitude of advancement. Butler Education Act 1944 The Butler Act established the compulsory tripartite system which involved the 11 plus determining which school children progressed to: grammar schools, secondary moderns and technical schools. It was designed to tackle ignorance. However, due to a lack of funds technical schools weren’t established and this meant that the system became more focused on the ‘pass’ or ‘fail’ into the grammar schools. Consequently, it became linked to middle-class status and they hired tutors and pushed their children to succeed. Healthcare Healthcare was provided by a variety of authorities: Poor Law, Public Health Authority and Education Authority. By 1937 18 million workers were covered by state health insurance however this was flawed as some societies were too small and went bankrupt. There were voluntary and state hospitals. The Tredegar Medical Aid Society was a healthcare scheme in a Welsh Town. 1945-51 Labour Government led by Attlee 1945 Election After the victory over Germany, there was considerable pressure to end the wartime coalition. Churchill was reluctant as Japan still remained to be defeated. The failings of previous conservative governments, their poor electioneering relating Labour to the ‘Gestapo’ contrasted with the increased trust in Labour members who had experience in the coalition and Labour’s views aligned more closely with the Beveridge Report and determination to ‘win the peace’. Conservative 213 39.8% Labour 393 47.8%  Liberals 12 9% This government had many key figures such as Ernest Bevin (Foreign Secretary), Stafford Cripps (Chancellor), Herbert Morrison (Deputy PM, foreign secretary in 1951 then Deputy Leader), Hugh Dalton, Ni Bevan (Minister of Health and creator of NHS) and Hugh Gaitskell (Chancellor in 1950). National Insurance Act 1946 This was built on the 1911 Act and created a system of universal and compulsory government, employer and employee contributions to cover unemployment, illness, maternity leave and retirement. Also, the Industrial Injuries Act 1948 provided compensation for workplace injuries and the National Assistance Act set up a board to deal with poverty and hardship. Family Allowances Act 1945 This provided a weekly 5 shillings for every child after the first and was paid directly to the mother. The National Health Services Act 1946 This introduced a system of free medical and hospital treatment which was run by the Regional Health Board. There was resistance from the British Medical Association as they feared the loss of privileges and reduced income. Bevan had to buy them off so that they did not lose out financially. The result was a period of Dandruff Syndrome as the working class went to the doctor for minor ailments. Nationalisation Labour planned the nationalisation of major industries. In 1946: coal, cable and wireless, Bank of England and Civil Aviation. In 1947: road haulage and electricity. In 1948: Gas and Railways. In 1949: Iron and Steel which was controversial as the industry was still profit-making which allowed the conservatives to fight against it but the Parliamentary Reform Act 1949 prevented conservatives from using the House Of Lords to block the bill. War Debt and Economics Following the war, Britain owed $4198 million to America and the Sterling Area and exports had dropped 60%. Dalton negotiated a $6 billion loan from the US and Canada, Britain also received $1.5 billion from the Marshall Plan. This was unsuccessful due to the “dollar gap” and resulted in an austerity policy and the pound ended up being devalued to make exports cheaper. There was a balance of payments deficit of £1 billion meaning money was leaving the country as exports fell from £248 million in 1938 to £120 million in 1946. Bretton Woods Agreement 1944 - Agreement to stabilise international currencies after the war by tying currency to the dollar which was the value of gold. The International Monetary Fund attempted to provide loans to countries in economic crisis to prevent a depression. In 1947 Convertibility of the Pound began and there was an outflow of $183 million in a week so in August this was suspended. Austerity Britain Cripps replaced Dalton in 1947, he implemented strict Austerity policies and preached self-control. These included: wage restraint policies, a wealth tax, and from 1945-51 pay rose only 6% compared to 10% inflation. By 1948 there was a balance of payments surplus of £30 million based on a 25% increase in exports and decreasing imports(rationing). 1949 Recession led to the devaluation of the pound. Housing This was the responsibility of Aneurin Bevan as Minister of Health but due to his focus on the NHS it was neglected and targets were not met. They had aimed to build 200000 per year. Bevan also made this harder by imposing minimum standards on housing which made them more expensive and even less were built as a result of this. Labour Conflict and the Korean War Following Japan’s defeat, Korea became independent and the North declared itself communist and the South capitalist. The war is backed by the US and UN who want to contain communism but this is costly for Britain and leads to significant sums being spent on the military rather than the welfare state and includes NHS cuts such as prescriptions, dentistry and glasses. A split occurs between consolidationists who are content with the welfare system and expansionists who want it to go further. 1950 Election Conservative 43% 298 Labour 46% 315 Liberals 9% 9 1951-5 Conservative Government led by Churchill 1951 Election Labour called a snap election as their 1950 majority was very narrow and prevented them from passing legislation. It was a disaster as the conservatives won. Churchill had increased his image through his memoirs and was trusted with war. In addition, they had spoken in favour of the welfare system and against austerity. The labour party was looking weak (housing) and had split. Conservative 48% 321 Labour 49% 295 Liberals 2% 6 Churchill’s Indian Summer lasted from 1951-6 and was maintained by Churchill’s refusal to retire due to his position in global politics and desire to support the newly crowned Queen Elizabeth in 1952. Churchill’s unwillingness to relinquish power was in spite of his ill health and Eden’s growing impatience to become PM. Butskellism R.A.Butler began as Chancellor at this time and his policies were closely aligned to Labour’s Gaitskell which led to the term Butskellism which was essentially Keynesian principles in action. In response to the grave balance of payments and ‘dollar gap’, Butler responded with import controls, cutting travel allowances and raising the Bank Rate. Following the boom in 1952-3 starting in America due to the end of the Korean War, Butler cut income and purchase tax which were popular decisions that improved standards of living. There are wage rises and the beginning of consumerism such as the ‘pots and pans budget’ tax on household objects. Economic growth was stimulated through creating and maintaining full employment e.g. airports, roads and motorways. Housing Harold Macmillan became Minister of Housing and had radical ideas. In 1950 conservatives pledged 300,000 houses per year and in 1952-3 this target was exceeded as 318,750 houses were built. He reduced building standards and private housing restrictions were eased. Private housing increased 30% as well. Education This area became neglected economically due to Florence Horsbrugh as Minister of Education. The limitations of the tripartite system became more clear as technical schools were not built and Horsbrugh made cuts to the education budget rather than increased funding. Churchill and other ministers were critical of her approach. “The face that sank a thousand scholarships”. 1955-57 Conservative Government led by Eden Suez crisis Following Churchill’s retirement, Eden made Macmillan chancellor and concerned his time with the Suez Crisis. The Suez Canal was important for trade and when Colonel Nasser - a nationalist who staged a coup in Egypt - decided to nationalise the canal. Britain and France were outraged due to the impact it had on their trade so, in order to regain control, they made an arrangement with Israel. Israel invaded the canal and Britain and France removed them. Eisenhower was outraged, causing a run on the pound. Eden resigned and Macmillan took control. 1957-63 Conservative Government led by Macmillan Economics Macmillan went through many Chancellors: Peter Thorneycroft, In 1957 there was a balance of payments crisis brewing and Enoch Powell convinced Thorneycroft to slow the economy by making cuts which caused conflict with Macmillan. In 1958 he resigned and was replaced by Dereck Heathcoat-Amory and then in 1960 Selwyn Lloyd. 1959 election Following the success in housing and failure of the Suez crisis, Macmillan became PM. He had a reputation as ‘supermac’ as he was unflappable and paternalistic. The election win was aided by full employment, high inflation and better negotiating powers. He was criticised for Stop-Go economics benefitting his election campaign. Conservative 49.4% 365 Labour 43.8% 258 Liberals 5.9% 6 1962 Reshuffle: ‘The Night of the Long Knives’ Due to the changing attitudes and growing impact of satire, Macmillan was losing control. In response, there was a major reshuffle and ⅓ of the cabinet was sacked. It began with Selwyn Lloyd and escalated very quickly. Economics after 1959 Productivity grew slower than inflation which became known as Stagflation. Britain’s GDP was growing slower than Europe at 2-3% compared to 5%. Purchase tax and the Bank Rate were raised and there was a public sector ‘pay pause’ but the private sector did not follow this so there is a strike threat. NEDC (National Economic Development Council) was established but was largely useless. It was known as ‘NEDDY’ and ‘NICKY’ was the NIC (National Income Council) counterpart. Reginald Maudling became Chancellor following the reshuffle. The Bank Rate is cut, the Purchase Tax on cars goes from 45% to 25% and tax cuts of £260 million. As a result, there was an economic boom as Real Wages increased 19% and Home ownership 44%, consumerism also reached a high as vacuum cleaners owned by 75%, washing machines, TVs, fridges etc. The EEC (European Economic Committee) refused Britain’s 1961 application to join. De Gaulle (France) vetoed Britain and Germany supported this decision. This led to the mid 60s introduction of metric units and decimal currency in 1971. Profumo affair John Profumo (Secretary Of State For War) had an affair with Christine Keeler who was also having an affair with Russian (Naval Attache) Yevgeny Ivanov who was a spy. Initially, Profumo denies it but eventually, he is forced to resign. This is devastating for Macmillan as James Bond and John Le Carre heightened fears alongside the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Cambridge Spy scandal. This scandal involved Cambridge students being bribed and blackmailed into spying for the Soviet Union as they increased power and progressed into politics. Satire ‘Beyond the Fringe’, ‘That was the Week that was’ and ‘Private Eye’ satire grew in popularity, even with Queen Elizabeth. It was commonly young comedians mocking old fashioned figures such as Macmillan. The Welfare State 1945-64 Following the creation of the NHS in 1946, there was a backlog of cases and ‘dandruff syndrome’ as healthcare was more accessible to those who needed it. This lack of funds coupled with the Korean War expenditure led to Gaitskell’s prescription charges 1951 for dentures, glasses and dentist appointments. The conservatives established a range of committees to tackle expenditure: The Cohen Commission 1956 to tackle GP inequalities; Guillebaud Commission 1956 to address cost issues but found spending had decreased from 3.75% of GDP to 3.25%; Clean Air Act 1956 to tackle pollution issues in London; Mental Health Plan 1961 closed asylums and established modern facilities; Hospital Plan 1962 funded £560 million and built 90 hospitals, refurbished 356 and modernised 134 as many hospitals were old fashioned or ex-workhouses. Society In Transition 1945-64 Class The Upper class remained in decline due to tax rates being high and the price of land being lower than preWW1 rates. This meant many stately homes were donated to the National Trust or converted into theme parks or zoos like Longleat in Wiltshire. However, they retain power through the House of Lords and prominence of the upper class in parliament. The Middle Class grew due to increased ‘class mobility’ and a system based more on meritocracy. House prices were low but taxes were high and at their highest 90% which was known as super tax and aimed at the redistribution of wealth. Women The 1959 Obscene Publications Act allowed artistic intention to be considered, making the judgement more subjective and resulting in Lawrence’s Lady Chatterley's Lover winning the court case and being published because of its ‘Literary Merit’. This was introduced by Roy Jenkins who became a prominent figure. Full employment encouraged women to work however the Marriage Bar in most workplaces meant that they had to stop once they were married meaning their husbands gave them pin money for groceries and household items. Feminist views began to rise. Simone Beauvoir was a French Philosopher who published ‘The Second Sex’ in 1949 and Betty Freidan published ‘The Feminine Mystique’ in 1963. Alongside the beginnings of the Women’s Liberation Movement, the pill became available to married women in 1961 and all women in 1967. Sexuality Homosexuality remained illegal (for men) however there was a shift from the view of it as a moral crime to viewing it as a mental illness. Many started to believe that it shouldn’t be a crime, however, Home Secretary David Maxwell Fyfe ordered the persecution of homosexuals and many arrests were made by ‘accident’ when investigating other crimes eg Alan Turing (who was sentenced to chemical castration) or made through ‘honey potting’ which involved laying traps to catch men out. A high profile case was Lord Montague who was an aristocrat and peer when caught. In response to this, the Homosexual Law Reform Society was established as well as the Wolfenden Commission. This was tasked with discussing prostitution and homosexuality. Wolfenden used the code words ‘huntley’ and ‘palmers’ so as not to offend the women involved. It suggested decriminalisation of homosexuality on two grounds: 1. Freedom of actions and 2. Gay men in positions of power were often targeted for Blackmail especially by Soviet Spies eg Cambridge Spies. Race and Immigration Immigration increased from the ‘New Commonwealth’ including the SS Empire Windrush. Tensions began to rise with Teddy Boy Gangs who believed they were stealing women and jobs. This led to Notting Hill Riots, “Keep Britain White” and black burying. The public debated harsher immigration policies and led to a rapid increase but a change occurred with the 1962 Commonwealth Immigration Act which required immigrants to have secured a job. Elections became very political. “No coloured, No Dogs, No Irish” was a common slogan for boarding houses and restaurants. The Notting Hill Riots began as a domestic argument between a girl and her Jamaican husband which developed into a fight with the involvement of white youths. The riots continued for 4 nights and called for tighter immigration controls. Law and Order Capital Punishment is changed due to Sidney Silverman’s attempts to draw attention to the miscarriages of justice such as Timothy Evans. Corporal Punishment remained in schools until the 70s and for assaults on prison staff (until 1962) But was abolished in most cases from 1947. Changing Quality of Life Consumer Society Real disposable income rose 30% in the 1950s and 22% in the 1960s. Almost every household had a TV by the 70s and ownership of other household appliances also increased. Teenagers also had disposable income for clothes, makeup and cars. The first supermarket was opened at this time and was cheap and convenient so there were 3500 by 1971. The removal of Retail Price Maintenance allowed supermarkets to slash and undercut local shops. Consumer credit also rose. Cinema Typical films involved genteel drawing-room comedies or murder mysteries. Shelagh Delaney‘s Taste of Honey confronted issues of race and contained a gay character. There were many comedies in this time period, Ealing Comedies such as Kind Hearts and Coronets were satirical and often criticised the class system. The Carry On films began in 1958 which were low budget comedies aimed at the working class. War films died out but experienced a revival in 1955 with The Dambusters, Bridge on the River Kwai and Lawrence of Arabia. There was also an increase in horror films, especially the franchises of Dracula and The Curse of Frankenstein. Ian Fleming’s Bond novels depicted an idealised version of Britain as strong and powerful (which wasn’t because of the Suez Crisis). Live and Let Die introduced exotic foods and changed trends. The Bond Film Franchise began in 1962 with Dr No starring Sean Connery and brought glamour to the British public despite the declining international role. Cars and Transport The Suez crisis and consequent lack of petrol led to compact smaller cars being developed such as Minis. These were riddled with faults and unpopular until Princess Margaret was gifted one for her wedding and then the Beatles and other celebrities popularised them. The cars were incredibly cheap and being sold at a loss - a warning against business incompetence. Train travel decreased as it was expensive and this led to 2363 station closes under the Beeching Report. Holiday camps like Butlins and Pontins became popular in this time period as working-class holidays. They organised activities for the children allowing parents to relax. Entertainment included Beauty Pageants and Knobbly-Knees competitions. These holidays cost one week of pay. The Middle class tended to go to seaside locations as car ownership was high. Middle-class families visited National Trust locations, museums and campsites. In the 50s the cross channel car ferry allowed holidays abroad to become more popular including school trips. Plane travel also increased and were part of ‘package holidays’ which were appealing as the Reps spoke English so language wasn’t an issue. Radio and Music The BBC had a monopoly on broadcasting and Radio Luxemburg was funded by adverts. The BBC included the Home Service (news and discussion), the Light Programme (popular music and comedy) and the Third Programme (classical music, poetry, theatre). Examples of programmes included The Goon Show which was an anarchic comedy show 1951-60 and The Archers. Rock and Roll music spread to Britain from America and led to British figures such as Cliff Richard. The Skiffle movement also grew in popularity resulting in a period of Beatlemania. There were morality concerns surrounding new trends such as Elvis Pelvis and Rock n Roll became associated with moral degeneration. Sport Football attendance was high and hooliganism gave it a bad name leading to a fall in ticket sales, Cricket experienced a boom from 1945-60 due to radio broadcasts. In 1948 London hosted the Austerity Olympics. Television The BBC restarted in 1946 and the Queen’s coronation boosted TV ownership. By 1960 most households owned one. TV was high/middlebrow and included programmes such as Animal, Vegetable, Mineral? And Dixon of Dock Green. ITV arrived in 1955 as a commercial alternative leading to the birth of Coronation street and this encouraged the BBC to become more mainstream including Doctor Who. The 60s were a Golden Age of Television and viewing figures were around 20-30 million. Mary Whitehouse led a cleanup TV campaign. Wilson’s Labour Government 1964-70 1963 Election and 1964 Macmillan resigns with prostate cancer and there is a leadership conflict between Reginald Maudling, R.A.Butler, Lord Hailsham and Lord Home. The Lords are unexpected as it seems outdated however Macmillan’s suggestion is Lord Hailsham and PM ends up being Lord Home who renounces his ‘peer’ position and runs in a safe seat in 1963. Wilson won the 1964 election. Conservatives 43% 304 Labour 44% 317 Liberals 11.2% 9 The Kitchen Cabinet Wilson faced a struggle as his party was divided between the Right and Left of Labour. He formed a Kitchen Cabinet of his trusted advisors including Marcia Williams and these were not cabinet members or MPs. He was heavily criticised for this especially as Williams was rude and used ministerial cars. This was informal and centred the decisions on Wilson, The majority was slim so Wilson needed to gain popularity to call an election. Economics Callaghan faced a severe balance of payments crisis which risked devaluation of the pound. They were determined to keep the value at $2.80 to prevent political consequences. However, they could have devalued and blamed the previous Conservative government for this action. The DEA was created to stimulate the economy but ultimately failed due to a lack of funding. 1966 Election Conservatives 41% 253 Labour 48% 364 Liberals 8% 12 Devaluation of the Pound The decision to devalue the pound was made following the Sterling Crisis - there was a run on the pound which increased strain. The Dockworkers strikes, Vietnam War, Arab-Israeli war and October 1967 saw the worst monthly trade deficit. The pound was reduced to $2.40 and Wilson made the ‘pound in your pocket’ speech. This meant that inflation was 10% higher and unions would demand higher wages. This led to stagflation as the economy was stagnant and in relative decline compared to other European nations. Roy Jenkins replaced Callaghan and there was a period of stringent budgets and government spending cuts. In 1969 due to increased world trade, there was a balance of payment surplus. Jenkins made cuts to defence spending and Britain withdrew from the East of Suez. Trade Unions Trade unions have gained lots of power over the past few years as the shop-steward generation has gained influence (radical left-wing). This led to wildcat strikes and the Friday Afternoon Product - products left unfinished due to strikes on a Friday. Barbara Castle is appointed to tackle this issue while not clamping down too much. Labour needs to appear sympathetic but take action now to prevent Conservatives from making harsher decisions in the future. She developed ‘In place of strife’ which included the industrial relations court. This imposed a 28-day ‘conciliation pause’ which was met by protests and opposition. Labour’s MPs were sponsored by unions and this reliance led them to withdraw the bill. An agreement is made between the government and unions which Wilson sells as a victory. Social Reforms Roy Jenkins is determined for a ‘civilised society’ so Labour moves towards liberalisation. Private Members Bills are used to pass this legislation. - Criminal Justice Bill 1967: ended birching of young offenders - Abolition of Capital Punishment 1965: by Silverman and Jenkins - Sexual Offences Bill: homosexuality is legalised for 21 and over. Leo Abse leads this campaign. - David Steel’s Bill: legalised abortion for mothers at risk of physical or mental health harm as long as it was approved by 2 doctors. - Family Planning Act 1967: removed restrictions on birth control. - Divorce Reform Act Education Tony Crosland was Minister of Education. The system remained based on the Butler Act. Crosland implements comprehensive schools as they are fairer than grammar schools. The Crosland Circular 10/65 requests comprehensives and 10/66 only funds councils who do this. University education alongside polytechnics are expanded and maintenance grants are given to students. The Open University 1971 makes university education more accessible. Heath’s Conservative Government 1970-74 1970 Election Conservatives 46% 330 Labour 43% 288 Liberals 7% 6 Heath’s application to the EEC was successful and they joined in January 1973. This is met with some Labour opposition who see it as centred solely around capitalism, Heath’s Government Manifesto is named the Selsdon Manifesto and planned to move away from the post-war consensus as they believed people were too reliant on the welfare state. They aimed for free-market policies and greater union controls. Barber Boom Anthony Barber was chancellor in this time and aimed for a boom before the adoption of free-market policies/looser business controls. Following the Barber Boom, there is a significant rise in inflation and unemployment hits a million. Many business subsidies are re-implemented by Heath and a U-turn from the Manifesto occurs. This angers free-market capitalists like Thatcher. Trade Unions The Industrial Relations Act 1971 gave unions a right to register with the National Industrial Relations Court (NIRC) which enforced rules including the banning of wildcat strikes. The NIRC had the power to impose solutions within the workplace. Many unions saw it as an attack on freedoms and the TUC banned member unions from registering. Many unions simply accepted the fines. Coal Miners Strike 1972 The Coal Miners strike occurs after unrest. Pay in this field had fallen compared to equivalent workers and injuries had increased. The Aberfan Disaster of 1966 fueled tensions further. McGhahey led the strike and secondary picketing of lorry depots and gas works occurred. The Battle of Saltley Gate refers to the picketing of the Saltley Coking works. Miners were given a 27% pay rise and this drove inflation further. Nixon Shock 1971 The American economy was under pressure during this period, due to the Vietnam War and Bretton Woods agreement. In 1971, Nixon ended this agreement and currencies became ‘free floating’ and inflation increased in the West. Oil Shock 1973 The Yom Kippur War broke out in Israel and the Middle East cut oil production and increased the price of oil by 400% triggering an economic shock. The petrol shortages led to the implementation of the Three Day Week as there was not enough fuel for a whole working week. The NUM has an overtime ban as their pay rises have been cancelled out and this puts the government under further pressure. Heath’s fight and resistance against the NUM is misjudged as it is the middle of winter and fuel shortages mean that houses cannot be heated properly. In 1974 the Miners called a National Strike and Heath called an election rather than giving in. The ‘Who Governs Election 1974 Conservatives 37.9% 297 Labour 37.2% 301 Liberals 19.3% 13 The Liberals have an increased share of the vote as the other parties are resented for their previous actions. Jeremy Thorpe is the leader of the party at this time and later there is a scandal surrounding him and his ex who threatens to out him to the papers. Labour came back as a minority government but had to call another election soon. Heath vs Thatcher Heath has been the leader of the conservative party for 4 general elections and has only won 1. He faced particular criticism as it was his decision to call the election that lost the party its majority. Heath was arrogant and believed he was the only possible candidate for the leadership. The free market capitalists of Enoch Powell (who made the ‘Rivers of Blood’ speech which was clearly racist) and Keith Joseph (who made a speech about welfare that implied preventing the poor from having children/eugenics). Thatcher remained the only other plausible option and was aided by Alley Neave to win leadership in 1975. Wilson’s Labour Government 1974-76 October 1974 Election Conservative 35% 277 Labour 39% 319 Liberals 18% 13 EEC referendum Wilson promises a referendum on membership to the EEC including new terms with Europe. He allows Labour MPs to vote either way. The vote is 67.2% to 32.7% in favour of the EEC. Keen campaigners for leave included Enoch Powell (Conservative) and Tony Benn (Labour). These key figures refused to campaign together as Powell was racist. Callaghan’s Labour Government 1976-79 Wilson retires in 1976 and the leadership comes down to a competition between Callaghan and Healey. Callaghan wins but Healey remains a prominent figure. Economy With Dennis Healey as Chancellor, inflation peaks at 26.9% in 1975. Healey combats this with public spending cuts and tries to get unions to agree to limited pay rises (for 2 years) in return for benefits. This was known as the Social Contract. In addition, the Industrial Relations Act was repealed, food subsidies increased and bans on rent increases. Phase 1: £6 per week for those earning £8500 per year reduced inflation to 12%. Phase 2: Limited at 4.5% and Inflation is 8.4% by 1978. Meanwhile, Healey secured a $3,9 billion loan from the IMF and alongside this budget cuts occurred and income tax was increased. Income tax had a new band introduced 33%, 38% and 83%. Corporation tax was realised from 12% to 52%. This was a clear move away from Keynesianismbut the cuts made are to military, industry subsidies and local authority funding rather than cuts to the welfare state. Welfare In 1974 the state pension was increased 25% and reforms to the Family Allowance Act occurred. This meant that single parents could now claim these Child Benefits. Council houses were also funded and improved. - Trade Union and Labour Relations Act (1974): replaced Industrial Relations Act and protected unions on strike. - Employment Protection Act (1975): guaranteed paid maternity leave. - Health and Safety at work Act (1974) - Sex Discrimination Act (1975) banned all discrimination in the workplace. Lib-Lab Pact In March 1977 an 18 moth deal with the Liberal party was formed. This was referred to as the Lib-Lab pact and allowed Labour to continue despite their narrow majority. This expired in September 1978 so an election was expected to take place. The economy was good and Callaghan had been nicknamed ‘Sunny Jim’. However, the election didn’t happen and Callaghan was heavily criticised for this decision. Winter of Discontent Phase 3: was supposed to be a return to normal collective bargaining however Phase 4: restricted pay rises at 5% due to the impending election. This 5% limit quickly fell apart and Healey campaigned for a 10-12% limit which would be more popular with the public. Ford workers demanded a 20% rise and Ford gave in despite the government’s threatened sanctions. This led to a series of further strikes even in the public sector. During this Callaghan was at a Conference in the Caribbean and the public believed he was out of touch with the crisis at home. Labour felt betrayed by the unions as everyone began to strike and it appeared that they had lost control. 1979 General Election Thatcher capitalised on labour’s failings and used modern advertising techniques to win the election. This included the ‘Labour isn’t working’ slogan. It was a watershed election as the Conservatives won a 43 seat majority. Conservatives 43.9% 339 Labour 36.9% 269 Liberals 13.8% 11 T2: Education 1964-79 Tony Crosland implemented the comprehensive school movement with the Crosland Circular 10/65 and 10/66. In 1970 the conservative Education Minister (Thatcher) gets rid of these changes but councils continue with their plans to go comprehensive. In 1976 Labour’s Shirley Williams reintroduced this reorganisation and removed direct grant grammar school funding. By 1979 150 grammar schools remain and Thatcher allows them to survive. 1967 -Plowden Report found the importance of project-based work and ‘discovery learning’ became much more prominent as a result. There was also differentiation in learning which was tailored to an individual’s educational needs. Grammar and spelling were neglected as they were seen to hinder creativity. There was relaxed discipline including uniforms, formalities and attendance of classes. The ILEA was best know for its ‘progressive teaching’ which was represented in the media by Grange Hill’s harsh depiction of the education system. Only the top 20% took O-levels and the CSE was introduced in 1965 but these were seen as secondary qualifications. Work experience was introduced in 1973. T3: Social Change 1964-79 Homosexuality Despite the decriminalisation of homosexuality in 1967 (under the Sexual Offences Act) it remained a taboo topic. Due to increased police attention (as men could still be arrested for ‘public indecency’ eg soliciting homosexual relations) many were arrested. The Gay Liberation Front was founded in the USA and spread to Britain in 1970. ‘Camp behaviour’ became common in sitcoms eg Are You Being Served? (1972-85). Leading pop stars Bowie and Elton John came out as bisexual and the first pride was held in London in 1971. Women The success of the 1968 strike by female workers in the Ford Dagenham attracted national attention. The National Women’s Liberation Conference first met in Oxford in 1970. They led to much more progressive legislation despite their ideological fractures. Most unions remained male-dominated except from figures like Margaret Bondfield and the slight increase in membership from 2.6-3.8 million. The number of married women who worked rose to ½ in 1970. The Equal Pay Act, Employment Discrimination Act and Sex Discrimination act all allowed women greater power in the workplace. Women were also allowed greater social freedoms: it was easier to divorce under the 1969 Divorce Reform Act; the Abortion Act and availability of the pill allowed women sexual freedoms; women in the media such as Angela Rippon, Joyce Grenfell, Jill Day, Barabara Mandell and Nan Winton aided changes. Female written sitcoms such as The Liver Birds and Butterflies written by Cara Lane. Race and Immigration Labour and conservatives tightened immigration restrictions in this time period and outlawed discrimination with the: - Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962 restricted the right to live in the UK to Commonwealth citizens with a job offer. - Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968 restricted to those with a parent/grandparent born in the UK. - Immigration Act 1971 replaced the work ‘voucher’ with 12-month permits. - Race Relations Act 1965 outlawed discrimination based on race or national origin. - Race Relations Act 1968 made it illegal to refuse housing, employment or services based on race or national origin. It was supposed to include the police (under Jenkins) but didn’t. Enoch Powell made his racist ‘Rivers of Blood’ speech. The National Front Party was formed in 1967. Opponents to the Liberal Society Serious and sustained challenges to these changes came from religious figures, public figures and conservative politicians. Thatcher was outspoken against low standards of public decency ‘basic Christian values … are under attack’. Mary Whitehouse was also concerned and joined the Moral Rearmament group. In 1963 her focus was on mass media and her clean up TV campaign (1964) which gained 50000 signatures. She implemented the watershed, attacked pornography, made sex shops implement blackout windows, privately prosecuted Gay News for a poem about a Roman Soldier having sex with Jesus (1977) and a campaign against ‘Life of Brian’. The Nationwide Festival of Light was a protest against mass media and was held in Hyde Park in 1971. Leisure and Entertainment 70s Sitcoms This period was known as the ‘Golden Age of Television’ which included: Steptoe and Son, Fawlty Towers, Porridge and Are You Being Served? Which had high viewerships and were very popular. They showed attitudes towards race, class, gender and authority. As they were satirical some sitcoms which were meant to be critical of racism/sexism could have been popular because of racist/sexist sentiments. Some of these bad sitcoms included Till Death do us Part and On the Buses. Cinema Film versions of sitcoms were used to try and boost the British Film Industry. In the 70s the Bond films were declining in quality, Hammer horrors became more revised and the Carry on Films became more sexual. All films became more violent/sexually explicit including many more nude scenes. Other aspects of cinema were A Clockwork Orange, Confessions of a Window Cleaner (1974) and Emmanuelle. Some local authorities banned these despite their BBFC Classifications and many cinemas closed. Conservative Criticisms of the Post-War consensus Business and Industry: - Unions are too powerful - Too much regulation on business - Nationalised industry prevents development as competition is lacking - Taxation on incomes is too high Welfare State: - ‘Poverty trap’ meaning that people on benefits lack the incentive to get a job as they will lose benefits and this leads to a dependency problem. - Cost of welfare - Bureaucracy problems - Reduced wealth generation due to high taxation - Baby booms require more spending on care and education - Increased living standards and life expectancy makes provision higher