Handbook of Black Studies PDF

Sage Reference Handbook of Black Studies For the most optimal reading experience we recommend using our website. A free-to-view version of this content is available here, which includes an easy to navigate and search entry, and may also include videos, embedded datasets, downloadable datasets, inter...

Sage Reference Handbook of Black Studies For the most optimal reading experience we recommend using our website. A free-to-view version of this content is available here, which includes an easy to navigate and search entry, and may also include videos, embedded datasets, downloadable datasets, interactive questions, audio content and downloadable tables and resources. Author: Mekada Graham Pub. Date: 2010 Product: Sage Reference DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412982696 Keywords: social work, spirituality, social centers, black people, critical reading, oppression, racism Disciplines: Race & Ethnicity, Race, Ethnicity & Migration, Black Studies, Sociology Access Date: July 24, 2023 Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Inc. City: Thousand Oaks Online ISBN: 9781412982696 © 2010 SAGE Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. Black Studies and the Social Work Paradigm: Implications of a New Analysis MekadaGraham The establishment of Black Studies in academic institutions emerged through the struggles and protests of Black communities during the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. Over the years, Black Studies has developed into an interdisciplinary academic field bringing together the historical, sociological, and psychological study of African Americans and, more recently, Black people throughout the Diaspora. This expansion in the parameters of Black Studies has resulted in a broader context of research with the term Africana Studies describing its content. Black scholars challenged the long-standing political, social, and economic oppression experienced by Black communities. They questioned the relegation of Black people to the fringes of society and sought to rupture existing academic discourses and the social and historical constructions of Blackness. Black Studies engaged with traditional disciplines in the social sciences, mounting a powerful critique of “race” theories and paradigms that informed and justified racial inequality. These critical voices challenged the limitations, distortions, and bias in conventional research methodology and in so doing spearheaded new ways of thinking and understanding human behavior. Alongside these critiques, Black scholars set about uncovering alternative epistemologies to articulate the hidden histories and cultural and intellectual agendas emerging from Black experiences. The imposition of a universal approach to knowledge valorized European/ Western academic discourses as “the only way of knowing.” There is no doubt that this discipline has made extensive contributions toward social change and new developments and approaches to social theory and research across the social sciences and the humanities. This new discipline sought to address the virtual absence of Black histories, lived experiences, and understandings in the social world apparent in institutions of higher learning. A new generation of Black scholars created a flurry of knowledge, bringing fresh insights and theoretical frameworks for understanding Black subjectivities, histories, cultures, and philosophies. This intellectual work has often advocated for a social science paradigm that affirms the traditions, philosophies, histories, and visions of Black people (Akbar, 1984; Asante, 1988; Graham, 2002a, 2002b; Hilliard, 1985; Nobles, 1985; Schiele, 2000). Page 2 of 17 Handbook of Black Studies Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. In this regard, Black researchers on the continent of Africa and throughout the Diaspora have detailed the existence of African social philosophies and worldviews, cultural values, narratives, and experiences that provide distinctive cultural patterns over time (Abarry & Asante, 1995). These philosophical assumptions—ways of knowing and understanding the world—survived the physical uprooting of African people through enslavement and the imposition of colonialism to remain an essential part of their ethos. Many Black scholars are engaged in reconstructing cultural antecedents as a resource base in assisting communities to affirm their philosophies; spiritual, emotional, and intellectual potential; and experiences. Asante (1988) advocates an African-centered paradigm that rejects the marginalization of Black people and places them at the center of analysis. This means that various phenomena are examined through the lens of an African-centered cultural paradigm that assists in exploring diverse social realities. These shifts in the parameters of knowledge creation are important because many academic discourses reveal an objectified stance intrinsic to the constructions of the “other.” These approaches, widely accepted by society, place emphasis on perceived pathologies within Black individuals rather than a serious analysis of power inequities in social institutions and arrangements. The uncovering of histories, philosophies, cultures, and the lived experiences of Black people in their social worlds has relevance across the social sciences—in particular, social work. This is because conventional social welfare has neglected discourses within Black communities as a field of study. As a result of this process, important contributions to the well-being of Black communities and the relief of human suffering have been marginalized. Moreover, there is an incomplete reading of world history and the human condition. The documentation and discussion of these new lines of inquiry provide a more inclusive picture of social welfare and an invaluable source of material. Social work has a history of social activism that began over a century ago in a climate of social reform. Despite the differences in approach, the critical tradition in social work seeks to develop progressive social work practice (Healy, 2000). These critical perspectives emanate from various social theories to form a body of critical practice theories. Healy (2000) identifies this broad range of models to include “anti-racist and multicultural social work, anti-oppressive and anti-discriminatory social work, feminist social work, various strands of community work, Marxist social work, radical social work, structural social work, and participatory and action forms of research” (p. 3). Social change has been a key aspect of progressive practice and an orientation toward a transformation of structural power relations in society. Equally important is the profession's overarching commitment to social change and human well-being. In contrast to other helping professions, social work is unique in its concern about what is just and unjust as well as about individual rights and duties as ongoing considerations. Page 3 of 17 Handbook of Black Studies Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. In a similar way, the critical race theories in Black Studies seek to rupture institutions of social thought “masquerading as neutral, universal and enlightening, [these] worldviews and knowledge forms have been implicated in the colonization, enslavement, oppression, marginalisation and exclusion of less powerful groups on a local and global scale” (Tastsogolou, 1999, p. 128). Social work is an interdisciplinary field of study that draws on the contributions of various disciplines but, primarily sociology and psychology in the development of theory and practice. Here again, social work and Black Studies have a common multidisciplinary approach to knowledge acquisition. In this context, both disciplines bring strengths and challenges to the changing environment of scholarly inquiry. This essay begins by presenting a brief overview of the historical legacies that inform social work knowledge and practice. The social sciences continue to play a defining role in shaping knowledge for social work. Knowledge is created by social workers in the course of their practice, and this knowledge is anchored by social theories that provide the frame for interventions. The next section will present an African-centered orientation to knowledge and explore how this knowledge can be interpreted in building new social work paradigms. The knowledge and insights about human experiences featured throughout Black/Africana Studies have provided the stimulus and backdrop for these new approaches. This essay concludes by advocating for a multiplicity of knowledge forms for social work. Black communities are calling for knowledge representation and inclusion in social work. This means that the sociocultural approaches that emerge from Black communities can make valuable contributions to social work generally and assist in strengthening the relevance of social work in the 21st century. Equally important, these approaches can be positioned in broader contexts as social work expands its knowledge forms, creating new frames for practice. Social Work and its Historical Legacies Knowledge forms for social work have their origins in European Enlightenment philosophies that developed throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. Enlightenment philosophies bestowed the foundations of modernity, including assumptions about the nature of human beings, social relationships, cultural value preferences, moral and ethical formulations, and economic, political, and welfare considerations. These philosophies played a pivotal role in shaping the social work profession as a scientific enterprise that embraced an “objective” and positivist paradigm in its activities. Hume, Kant, and Hegel, arguably the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, contributed to the invention of racial hierarchy through codifying and institutionalizing perceptions of the human race and its entrance into Page 4 of 17 Handbook of Black Studies Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. the academic, political, and social world (Eze, 1998). These forms of knowledge influenced the development of social thought that underpins social welfare theories, paradigms, and practice. These constructions of the “other” in social welfare have created the conditions of exclusion so that the needs of Black communities have often been neglected and social work institutions sometimes reinforce patterns of racism and discrimination (Dominelli, 1988). Hidden forms of cultural oppression are entangled in social work's knowledge forms and permeate its discourses as powerful conduits in the production and dissemination of knowledge. This means that the parameters of defining any knowledge about social relations is inextricably bound to an established consensus about what knowledge is valid and worth speaking about. As a result of this process, Black communities have been refused the right to speak in their own terms, and their contributions to social work theory are not given serious consideration (Trew, 2002). Contemporary Debates: Social Work, Critical Traditions, and Adaptations In response to the growing need to address the social welfare needs of diverse communities, two important perspectives have emerged as the way forward. The multicultural and antiracist approaches have become highly influential in human services practice. These perspectives are often identified as part of the critical tradition in social work and progressive practice initiatives. These approaches have developed during a period of flux and change in social work as legislative, political, and economic policies drive the profession in various directions. These contingencies present new challenges for social work to reassert its role and relevancy in fostering well-being and social justice in contemporary societies. For example, in Britain, antiracist approaches to social work emerged during the 1980s in response to discrimination, injustice, and inequalities in service provision and delivery as well as racism within the profession itself (Dominelli, 1988). Black professionals and activists were at the forefront of struggles demanding change in social welfare policies. Social work institutions were often perceived by Black communities as instruments of social control that fostered the breakdown of families rather than family support and restoration. Antiracist approaches assisted in shifting notions of tolerance and individualized notions of prejudice toward insights into power inequities and institutionalized racism within social work and its operations. These contriPage 5 of 17 Handbook of Black Studies Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. butions to social work have been achieved despite the context of powerful State-managed bureaucracies and widespread academic intransigence (Williams, 1999). Notwithstanding these progressive perspectives, antiracist social work has been subject to intense critiques from the media, the New Right, and academic public circles. These critiques focus on two main areas in relation to social work. First, the extent and nature of racial discrimination was the subject of ongoing debates as the meaning of race and the significance of the term became extensively problematized. During this period, a race relations paradigm surrounding immigration issues featured as the main construct of discussion in academic circles. However, these paradigms were increasingly challenged by critical theorists uncovering the extent of racism in British society. In this regard, the concept of race and its place in society was subject to intense scrutiny. In some cases, social work literature articulated the discourse couched within a dichotomy of “Black” and “White” as a grand theory of racism that ignored other sites of oppression, such as gender. These omissions attracted critiques of essentialism as well as the theoretical underpinnings of race. Social work commentators critical of antiracist approaches noted that the category was “informed by neither sociological, political nor economic theory or research” (Macey & Moxon, 1996, p. 297). As Dei (1999a, 1999b) maintains, the importance of race as a social construct has been undermined as a tool in the struggles for justice and equity in social theory. The deliberations about the meanings of race have resulted in “intellectual gymnastics” that denies the saliency of race in the contexts of social welfare. The influence of postmodern thinking and its constituents in theorizing about difference, identities, and ethnicity questioned collective histories and struggles for social justice. However, as Dei (1999a) asserts, “Race is more than a theoretical concept. It is also an idea that governs social relations…. race hierarchies shape and/or demarcate our schools, communities, workplaces and social practices and lived experiences” (p. 4). Race, then, is a powerful social and political construct that applies physical markers as a signifier of difference and the “other” (Graham & Robinson, 2004). Second, antiracist social work became increasingly perceived as a single-issue standpoint that privileges race over other forms of oppression. Some academics have used this problematic to deny race as an important form of discrimination. For example, O'Hagan (2001) argues that social work has a debilitating obsession with race and that racism is not the most common form of discrimination in the British context. The histories of racisms in the British and Western context necessitate a serious analysis of social welfare institutional structures and processes that sometimes result in differential treatment (Graham, 2004). This is why forms of knowledge that influenced the development of social thought that underpins social welfare paradigms and Page 6 of 17 Handbook of Black Studies Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. practice require a kind of “obsession” to ensure that social work does not reproduce inequalities it seeks to address. Although antiracist approaches are both promoted and maligned, they open up developments toward progressive practice and a working knowledge of the interlocking nature of race and oppression. Multicultural and ethnic-sensitive approaches in social work have become an extensive paradigm for practice in the U.S. context. They have emerged as the way forward to engage with increasing diversity within national populations. These paradigms for practice advance the understanding of cultural differences and sensitivity to cultural ways of living and social worlds. The term multiculturalism has been maligned in the British context as a liberal façade that celebrates cultures but ignores issues of power and social justice. However, this term includes analyses of oppressions, including issues of power. These models of practice propose adaptation of practice skills in response to differing life styles and family patterns. Although these paradigms do suggest how existing social work practice might be adapted, they rarely generate new theories or strategies. The introduction of cultural competency as a way of developing progressive practice has brought about some accommodation and opening up of new skills and practice knowledge. African-Centered Social Thought and Social Work As mentioned earlier in this essay, Black scholars have been engaged in reconnecting with an African cultural matrix to uncover knowledge as a resource base for cultural renewal and empowering discourses in Black communities. African-centered worldviews bring together various schools of thought derived from classical African civilizations as the baseline for conceptions of human beings and the universe. These philosophical precepts provide the templates of culture, belief systems, and values that inform Black cultural identities. The field of philosophy considers questions about the nature of human existence. The nature of human existence underpins the structure and ordering of philosophical principles to distill the essence of human beings. This reflective activity encapsulates the interplay of reason and sense experience in shaping episte-mologies. Epistemologies, theories of knowledge, are bound by historical period, culture, and ideology, and they frame the questions we ask about the world and human behavior. Page 7 of 17 Handbook of Black Studies Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. African-centered social thought seeks to organize study and analyze cultural data in the cultures and philosophies of Black people. African-centered theories propose that this is the most effective way of studying and understanding Black people and their communities. This approach suggests a cultural orientation in approaching and interpreting data. African-centered approaches to social work seek to address how social problems have affected people of African ancestry uniquely and disproportionately. At this juncture, it is pertinent to briefly outline some of the principles of African-centered approaches to social work. First, this approach emphasizes the spiritual nature of human beings and frames knowledge and understanding of human behavior and life worlds. There are several definitions of spirituality in current usage. Spirituality here is defined as a creative life force, the very essence of all things that connects all human beings to each other. Spirituality connects all elements of the universe; people, animals, and inanimate objects are viewed as interconnected. Because they depend on each other, they are, in essence considered as one (Mbiti, 1970). Second, this worldview promotes the interconnectedness of all the elements of the universe. This worldview considers the interconnectedness of human beings so that the human beings and world are not subject to the dichotomies of mind/body and spirit/material. This worldview is in opposition to Eurocentric understandings that view dichotomies as primary and often in conflict rather than working in harmony. The interconnectedness of all things sees no separation between the material and the spiritual; “reality is at one and inseparably spiritual and material” (Myers, 1988, p. 24) because all reality (universe) begins from a single principle. Human beings are perceived as an integral part of nature, and living in harmony with the environment helps them to become at one with all reality. The interconnectedness of human beings spiritually is translated socially so that the human being is not an isolated individual but a person in his or her community. In other words, a person is a person through the community of other persons. This is best expressed in the term ubuntu, which describes the quality of being human. The qualities of compassion, care, respect, and empathy are essential ingredients of what makes us human and serve as the guide for everyday interpersonal relationships (Holdstock, 2000). These philosophical assumptions transmit to the psyche a sense of belonging to the community and of being part of the whole. This is because mutuality and individuality are inextricably linked in the concept of self. The individual's moral growth and development facilitates the growth of others (Holdstock, 2000). Third, from these assumptions of collective identity follows the emphasis on human commonalities rather than on individual differences. Whatever happens to the individual happens to the whole group, and what happens Page 8 of 17 Handbook of Black Studies Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. to the whole group happens to the individual. Therefore the individual cannot be understood separately from other people. The emphasis on interconnectedness and the importance of relationships provide individuals with a sense of purpose and connection with families and communities. The development of self is characterized as an act of becoming. This act of becoming is a process of attainment and incorporation into a community and negates the idea that personhood is achieved simply by existence. The process of the life journey is marked by a series of passages, and in this way a person is afforded challenges to grow, change, and develop in order to attain moral growth and recognition within the context of community. The life journey is not a linear process that results in decline as a result of the aging process but a progression of consciousness as individuals internalize lessons and transform thoughts, words, and actions through the cycles of life to reach perfection where the body becomes one with the soul (T—Shaka, 1995). African-centered worldviews include the concept of balance. The task of all living things is to maintain balance in the face of adverse external social forces. King (1994) explains that “being in harmony with life means that one is living with life—co-operating with natural forces that influence events and experiences while simultaneously taking responsibility for one's life by consciously choosing and negotiating the direction and paths one will follow” (p. 20). Accordingly, when this inner peace is compromised, the psychological, social, and physical well-being of a person is threatened. Mapping the Contours of African-Centered Social Work Paradigms In recent years Black professionals have incorporated African-centered theories into designing social work interventions (Graham, 2002a, 2002b; Harvey & Rauch, 1997; Jackson, 1995; Schiele, 2000). African-centered social work interventions not only recognize the importance of social context but also contextualize social realities as enabling factors in progressive forms of practice. This approach acknowledges that “no one intervention strategy can meet all the needs of an individual” (Stewart, 2004, p. 225) and therefore, multiple modalities may be required. This is because multiple experiences of oppression require multifaceted interventions to mitigate direct and indirect power blocks (Harvey & Rauch, 1997). The strength of this approach enables individuals and families to move toward a sense of interconnectedness and “wholeness” as a selfPage 9 of 17 Handbook of Black Studies Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. acquisition of empowerment. As I have argued elsewhere, empowerment as a guiding philosophy in social work is largely defined by professionals and often located in conventional meanings tied to individual or collective strategies. For Black communities, empowerment means liberation from oppressive barriers and control. This is experienced in various ways and situations and predicated on a critical consciousness and a sense of rising up, of determination and vision to change one's situation and predicament as a collective exercise. The practice of empowerment is sought through resistance and agency in defining and redefining Black cultural identities. This means that a critical reading of cultural products and themes provides new insights and approaches in designing social interventions (Graham, 2004). According to Lee (1994), empowerment invites the maintenance of culture as a strategy that embraces the importance of ideas, custom, networks, skills, arts, and language of a people rejecting the emphasis on acculturation and loss. This approach embraces the importance of locally produced knowledge emanating from cultural histories, philosophies, social interactions, and experiences of daily life. These wider understandings of empowerment use cultural knowledge, which shapes and defines African-centered social work paradigms for practice. These strategies in advancing the sociocultural interpretations of Black communities as theoretical and practice orientations have significance not only in terms of cultural specificity but also across the landscape of social work generally. It has to be noted here that multicultural approaches that propose a generic cultural framework often lack cultural specificity and social context in which unique historical and contemporary experiences are instrumental in shaping practice interventions. African-centered social work seeks to analyze social ills and issues faced by Black communities through the lens of Black experiences and interpretations. This process draws on levels of individual assets and positive attributes to engage and sustain community-building strategies. These perspectives draw on shared concerns and reflections on the ways in which racism continues to play an important part in the life chances of individuals and families and construct strategies of resistance toward social change. Communities extrapolate from their shared concerns to increase knowledge about life experiences and have often appropriated cultural antecedents as a way of interpreting and planning successful futures. For example, life cycle development programs (also known as rites of passage) have been a popular form of intervention that facilitates the transition of young people into adulthood through supporting family relationships. It is often claimed that the absence of an orderly progression into adulthood may contribute to the Page 10 of 17 Handbook of Black Studies Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. breakdown in the maturation process and encourage a disintegration of the important links between generations (Boateng, 1993). These programs draw on a critical reading of cultural antecedents and employ cultural knowledge to nurture the complex linkages between emotional, intellectual, physical, social, and spiritual dimensions of life and society. There are several forms of life cycle development programs each with different emphasis. ▪ Community-based programs that provide short-term intergenerational experiences for young people, to assist them in the transition to adulthood. ▪ Church-based programs (recently popularized as faith-based programs) that have been developed alongside church-orientated youth programs. ▪ Therapeutic programs developed as specific social work interventions that seek to educate and support young people involved in self-destructive behaviors. ▪ Family support programs emphasizing the important role of elders in providing the linchpin for generations to secure the forward flow of communities. (Warfield-Coppock, 1990) Many programs use the principles of Ma at (a conceptual matrix that articulates social and cultural values) as a framework for intervention. Over the past decades, Black scholars have been engaged in translating the concepts of Ma'at into the language of a modern moral discourse in order to uncover cultural connections with an ancestral past. Ma'at is translated through the seven principles that guide a values system referred to as nguzo saba (see Karenga, 1997, 1998). Each principle of the nguzo saba provides the focus for program objectives and activities: for example, umoja (unity)—to strive for and maintain unity in the family, community, nation, and culture. These social action-orientated programs assist young people in navigating their process of development in affirming cultural knowledge through patterns of interpreting realities outside Eurocentric lines of social thought, which often locate Black people within a consciousness of racism and oppression. This is important because Black communities have had limited choices and opportunities in which to construct social realities that are meaningful and empowering. In whatever way Black people choose to define themselves, there are still more powerful stereotypes embedded within the wider society that define their status and identities (Stanfield, 1994). Historically, spirituality has played a central role in the struggles, survival, and empowerment of Black people. Spirituality as a creative process provided the vehicle for managing and sustaining psychological wholeness in the face of repression and subjugation. Spirituality offers a way of experiencing the world and interacting Page 11 of 17 Handbook of Black Studies Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. with others that transcends the limitations of day-to-day living to embrace the meaning and purpose of life. These understandings of spirituality continue to provide sustenance to inner strengths to overcome assaults on individual well-being. In the face of deep-seated racism and oppression, spirituality was the means by which divine powers and unseen forces could motivate, encourage, and offer hope to create new futures and possibilities. Black people speak about “lifting the spirit” and express spirituality through many different forms, including affirming, shouting, singing, praying, and testifying (Martin & Martin, 2002). In this context, spirituality has a central place in this social work paradigm. This is because human beings are perceived to have a propensity toward goodness and the transformation potential of individuals is vast and unlimited. Thus, self-realization takes place within a social context based on the assumption that self-actualization of humans is best achieved in morally grounded relations with others (Karenga, 1997). The individual is always a person within a community where patterns of development are shaped in critical thought and social practice so that the collective and personal exist within a social context of reciprocal unity. These unifying principles include a diffusion of Ma at across space and time, harmonizing humans living, departed, and yet to be born. The principle of self-realization is expressed within the ethics of care and responsibility where service to others is not only beneficial to others but also to oneself. These philosophical assumptions transmit to the psyche a sense of connection with others and to a higher being. Reciprocity between the community and the person is an investment in each other's happiness, well-being, and development. These considerations are encapsulated in the words, “I think therefore we are.” Equally important, spirituality knowing involves individuals' sharing experiences of the universal meaning of human existence. These knowledge forms “give power and strength in physical communication as a means of connecting the inner strength and character to the outer existence and collective identity” (Dei, 1999a, p. 6). The complex linkages of the spiritual and emotional well-being of the individual are nurtured and made relevant to everyday living. Cultural Spaces: Spiritual Well-Being and Empowerment Despite the profession's ambivalent attitude toward spirituality, this dimension of life experience is a key element in understanding the human condition. In recent years, the profession has been reviewing its use of Page 12 of 17 Handbook of Black Studies Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. spirituality in practice. In the wake of this renewed interest, it is argued that spirituality is not necessarily based on religious affiliations. Hence, people may choose to express their spirituality in various ways that are devoid of religious considerations. African-centered orientations to social work consider oppression to be an important source of problems and difficulties. Schiele (1996) contends that there has been limited attention to the role of spiritual alienation in explaining and resolving social problems. Schiele (1996) defines spiritual alienation “as the disconnection of nonmaterial and morally affirming values from concepts of human self-worth and from the character of social relationships” (p. 289). One of the damaging effects of oppression is that it impedes the creations of visions, possibilities, and potentialities in new futures so that dreams are often deferred or lost (Bernard, 1999). African-centered paradigms use a critical reading of cultural antecedents as a source for therapeutic ideas in the helping process. These cultural elements offer a unique approach to restoring and nurturing psychological well-being through seeking balance and harmony in the dynamic process of energy fields and force of life to bring about optimal health. These ways of understanding human behavior and life are closely associated with ideas of wellness. Optimal health provides the frame for physical, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual well-being. This means that the complex interplay between mind, body, spirit, relationships, and environment is the focal point to restore harmony and balance. These therapeutic ideas and processes are translated into new approaches to counseling and psychotherapies (see Graham, 2005; Grills, 2002; Parham, 2002). Conclusion This essay has brought together the disciplines of Black Studies and social work. The historical legacies of social work require serious analysis to address all forms of oppression with the profession itself. Even though social work has produced a flurry of literature surrounding issues of diversity and social justice in both theory and practice, limited attention has been given to knowledge representation and inclusion. Feminists have made important contributions to forge new paradigms for practice that assisted in the diversification of knowledge forms for social work. In a similar way, African-centered theories have enriched and Page 13 of 17 Handbook of Black Studies Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. advanced the development of knowledge in social work. Unfortunately, social work has been somewhat reluctant to engage in the challenging task of integrating a multiplicity of human ideas and understandings into the academy. However, social work as an interdisciplinary field of study is uniquely placed to explore a variety of knowledge forms and their contribution to human betterment and the enrichment of theory building. Many commentators have expressed concern about the relevance of social work in the 21st century, and perhaps an expanded knowledge base can assist in realizing social work's commitment to inclusiveness and diversity. References Abarry, A., & Asante, M. (1995). African intellectual heritage: A book of sources. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Akbar, N.Africentric social sciences for human liberation. Journal of Black Studies14(4) (1984). 395–414. Asante, M. (1988). Afrocentricity: Theory of social change. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press. Bernard, W. (1999). Working with Black men for change. In J. Wild (Ed.), Working with Black men for change (pp. 59–71). London: UCL Press. Boateng, F. (1993). African traditional education: A tool for intergenerational communication. In M. K. Asante & K. W. Asante (Eds.), African culture: The rhythms of unity. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press. Dei, G. (1999a). Rethinking the role of indigenous knowledges in the academy. Public Lecture, University of Toronto, Department of Sociology and Equity Studies, Toronto, ON, Canada. Dei, G.The denial of difference: Reframing anti-racist praxis. Race, Ethnicity and Education2(1) (1999b). 17–37. Dominelli, L. (1988). Anti-racist social work. London: Macmillan. Eze, E. (1998). Modern Western philosophy and African colonialism. In E. Eze (Ed.), African philosophy: An anthology. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Graham, M.Creating spaces: Exploring the role of cultural knowledge as a source of empowerment in models Page 14 of 17 Handbook of Black Studies Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. of social welfare in Black communities. British Journal of Social Work32 (2002a). 35–49. Graham, M. (2002b). Social work and African centered worldviews. Birmingham, UK: Venture Press. Graham, M.Empowerment revisited: Social work, resistance and agency in Black communities. European Journal of Social Work7(1) (2004). 43–56. Graham, M. (2005). Maat: An African centered paradigm for psychological and spiritual healing. In R. Moodey & W. West (Eds.), Integrating traditional healing practices into counseling and psychotherapy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Graham, M., Robinson, G.The silent catastrophe: Institutional racism in the British educational system and the underachievement of Black boys. Journal of Black Studies34(5) (2004). 653–671. Grills, C. (2002). African-centered psychology. In T. Parham (Ed.), Counseling persons of African descent. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Harvey, A. R., Rauch, J. B.A comprehensive Afrocentric rites of passage for Black male adolescents. Health and Social Work22(1) (1997). 30–37. Healy, K. (2000). Social work practices: Contemporary perspectives on changeLondon: Sage. Hilliard, A.Kemetic concepts in education. Journal of African Civilisations6(2) (1985). 133–153. Holdstock, T. (2000). Re-examining psychology: Critical perspectives and African insights. London: Routledge. Jackson, M.Afrocentric treatment of African American women and their children in a chemical dependency program. Journal of Black Studies31 (1995). 406–422. Karenga, M. (1997). Kwanzaa: A celebration of family, community and culture. Los Angeles: University of Sankore Press. Karenga, M. (1998). The African American holiday of Kwanzaa: A celebration of family, community and culture. Los Angeles: University of Sankore Press. King, A. 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Cultural competence in the caring professions. London: Jessica Kingsley. Parham, T. (Ed.). (2002). Counseling persons of African descent. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Schiele, J.Afrocentricity: An emerging paradigm in social work practice. Social Work42(3) (1996). 284–294. Schiele, J. (2000). Human services and the Afrocentric paradigm. New York: Haworth Press. Stanfield, J. (1994). Ethnic modeling in qualitative research. In N. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Stewart, P.Afrocentric approaches to working with African American families. Families in Society85(2) (2004). 221–228. Tastsoglou, E. (1999). Mapping the unknowable: The challenges and rewards of cultural, political and pedagogical border crossing. In A. Calliste & G. J. S. Dei (Eds.), Antiracism and critical race, gender and class studies. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto Press. Trew, J. (2002). Social theory: Power and practice. Hampshire UK: Palgrave Macmillan. T—Shaka, O. (1995). Return ofthe Afrikan mother principle of male and female equality (Vol. 1). Oakland, CA: Pan Afrikan. Warfield-Coppock, N. (1990). Afrocentric theory and applications: Adolescent rites of passage. Washington, DC: Baobab. Williams, C.Connecting anti-racist and anti-oppressive theory and practice: Retrenchment or reap- Page 16 of 17 Handbook of Black Studies Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. praisal?British Journal of Social Work29(2), (1999). 211–230. • social work • spirituality • social centers • black people • critical reading • oppression • racism https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412982696 Page 17 of 17 Handbook of Black Studies