Biopsychology 2023 ICR Version Past Paper PDF

Biopsychology Booklet (Paper 2) Topic Highlig Learn Learn Mind Past Essay hted key key map/ Questions/fr plans in notes words studies Revision om exercise...

Biopsychology Booklet (Paper 2) Topic Highlig Learn Learn Mind Past Essay hted key key map/ Questions/fr plans in notes words studies Revision om exercise cards website/Grid books The nervous system Neurons and synaptic transmission The endocrine system The fight or flight response Including the role of adrenalin Localisation of function Lateralisation and split-brain research Plasticity and functional recovery of the brain Ways of studying the brain Circadian Rhythms Ultradian and Infradian Rhythms Endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitbergers What you must know: from the AQA specification 1. The divisions of the nervous system: central and peripheral (somatic and autonomic). 2. The structure and function of sensory, relay and motor neurons. The process of synaptic transmission, including reference to neurotransmitters, excitation and inhibition. 3. The function of the endocrine system: glands and hormones. 4. The fight or flight response including the role of adrenaline. 5. Localisation of function in the brain and hemispheric lateralisation: motor, somatosensory, visual, auditory and language centres; Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas, split brain research. Plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma. 6. Ways of studying the brain: scanning techniques, including functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); electroencephalogram (EEGs) and event-related potentials (ERPs); post-mortem examinations. 7. Biological rhythms: circadian, infradian and ultradian and the difference between these rhythms. The effect of endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers on the sleep/wake cycle.  1. The Nervous System Nervous system - Consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. Central nervous system (CNS) - Consists of the brain and the spinal cord and is the origin of all complex commands and decisions. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – Sends information to the central nervous system (CNS) from the outside world, and transmits messages from the CNS to muscles and glands in the body. Somatic nervous system - Transmits information from receptor cells in the sense organs to the central nervous system (CNS). It also receives information from the CNS that directs muscles to act. Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - Transmits information to and from internal bodily organs. It is 'autonomic' as the system operates involuntarily (i.e. it is automatic). It has two main divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Differences between The Sensory Nervous System (SNS) and The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Sensory and motor pathways Just motor pathways Controls skeletal muscle and movement Controls internal organs and glands Carries commands from the motor cortex Control centre is in the brain stem Conscious (mostly) Unconscious Neuron: The basic building blocks of the nervous system, neurons are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals. Neurons transmit nerve signals to and from the brain at up to 200 mph. The neuron consists of a cell body (or soma) with branching dendrites (signal receivers) and a projection called an axon, which conduct the nerve signal. There are three types of neuron consist of similar parts, however their structure, location and function are different: Sensory Relay Motor From receptors (e.g. eyes, Found in the central nervous From CNS to effectors ears, tongue and skin) to the system (brain and spinal cord) (muscles and glands) CNS (brain or spinal cord) Not all sensory neurons reach the brain, as some neurons stop at the spinal cord, allowing for quick reflex actions. When motor neurons are stimulated, they release neurotransmitters that bind to the receptors on muscles to trigger a response, which leads to movement.  Key word Function Dendrites Receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptor cells Cell body ‘Control centre’ which contains the nucleus Axon Long slender fibre that carries electrical impulses (also known as action potentials) Myelin sheath Insulates the neuron so that electrical impulses travel faster (but not in relay neurons) Axon terminal The end of the neuron that connects to other neurons or organs Neuron pathway Questions 1. What does the nervous system consist of? 2. What does the central nervous system do? 3. What is the peripheral nervous system? 4. What are the 2 main functions of the somatic nervous system? 5. What is the autonomic nervous system? 6. Give two differences between the autonomic and somatic nervous systems 7. What is the role of the myelin sheath? 8. What is another name for electrical impulses? Exam questions 1. Give one difference between the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system (1 mark) 2. Complete the following sentence. Shade one box only. Sensory neurons carry information: A away from the brain B both to and from the brain C towards the brain D within the brain 3. Jeremy is digging in the garden. He feels the spade hit a rock and stops diggin immediately. Explain how sensory, relay and motor neurons would function in this situation (6 marks)  2. Synaptic transmission Key word Definition Synaptic The process by which neighbouring neurons communicate with each transmission other by sending chemical messages across the gap (the synaptic cleft) that separates them Neurotransmitter Brain chemicals released from synaptic vesicles that relay signals across the synapse from one neuron to another. Neurotransmitters can be broadly divided into excitatory and inhibitory Excitation When a neurotransmitter (e.g. adrenaline) makes the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire by increasing the positive charge of the neuron. Inhibition When a neurotransmitter (e.g. serotonin) makes the postsynaptic neuron less likely to fire by decreasing the charge of the neuron. Summation The combined effect of the excitation and inhibition. If the net total on the postsynaptic neuron passes the threshold (-55mV) then the postsynaptic neuron will fire. The process of synaptic transmission (from AQA mark scheme) 1. Electrical impulses (action potentials) reach the presynaptic terminal 2. Electrical impulses (action potentials) trigger release of neurotransmitters, such as serotonin 3. Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft 4. Neurotransmitters combine with receptors on the postsynaptic membrane 5. Stimulation of postsynaptic receptors by neurotransmitters result in either excitation (depolarisation) or inhibition (hyperpolarisation) of the postsynaptic membrane. Why can neurons only transmit information in one direction at a synapse? The synaptic vesicles containing the neurotransmitter are only present on / released from the presynaptic membrane The receptors for the neurotransmitters are only present on the postsynaptic membrane It is the binding of the neurotransmitter to the receptor, which enables the signal / information to be passed / transmitted on (to the next neuron) Diffusion of the neurotransmitters means they can only go from high to low concentration so can only travel from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic membrane. Examples of Neurotransmitters 1. Serotonin - It is believed to help regulate mood and social behaviour, appetite and digestion, sleep, memory, and sexual desire and function. Low levels of serotonin are linked to depression 2. Dopamine - affects your emotions, movements and your sensations of pleasure and pain. Depleted levels are linked to Parkinson’s disease. An excess of DA receptors is linked to schizophrenia. 3. Norepinephrine - important for attentiveness, emotions, sleeping, dreaming, and learning. Norepinephrine is also released as a hormone into the blood, where it causes blood vessels to contract and heart rate to increase. Norepinephrine plays a role in mood disorders such as manic depression. Questions 1. What is synaptic transmission? 2. What is the difference between excitation and inhibition? 3. What is the process of synaptic transmission? 4. Why can synapses only work in one direction? 5. What is the role of serotonin? 6. What is the role of norepinephrine? Exam questions 1. A survey of hospital patients has found that a new drug, Zapurpain, is as effective as other pain medication. Zapurpain acts like an inhibitory neurotransmitter at the synapse. Explain how Zapurpain might affect the process of synaptic transmission through inhibition. (4 marks) 2. Raoul has recently been prescribed a drug for a mental illness. He looks on the internet to find out more about the drug but he does not understand the phrase ‘synaptic transmission’. Write a brief explanation of synaptic transmission in the brain to help Raoul understand how his drug might work. (3 marks) Online links to exam questions, mark schemes and examiner’s report for the above content: https://vufimei.exampro.net/  3. Endocrine System The purpose of the endocrine system is to regulate cell or organ activity within the body and control vital physiological processes in the body The endocrine system releases hormones (chemical messengers) from glands into the bloodstream which then bind with specific receptors in order to regulate the activity of cells or organs in the body. The hypothalamus is connected to the pituitary gland and is responsible for stimulating or controlling the release of hormones from the pituitary gland. Therefore, the hypothalamus is the control system which regulates the endocrine system. You need to learn the glands of the endocrine system, the hormones they release, and the effects of these hormones: Questions 1. What is the purpose of the endocrine system? 2. What are hormones? 3. What is the role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system? 4. Which hormone does the pineal gland release? 5. What is the role of cortisol? 6. Which hormone is responsible for regulating metabolism? 7. What is the difference between the anterior and posterior pituitary gland? Exam questions 1. Briefly explain one function of the endocrine system (2 marks). 2. Identify two glands in the endocrine system and outline their function (4 marks) Online links to exam questions, mark schemes and examiner’s report for the above content: https://wafofit.exampro.net/  4. Autonomic Nervous System: Fight or flight Stress is a biological and psychological response experienced on encountering a threat that we feel we do not have the resources to deal with. A stressor is the stimulus (or threat) that causes stress, e.g. exam, divorce, death of loved one, moving house, loss of job. Both the CNS and ANS are involved in the process of fight or flight. Overview of fight or flight response 1. The amygdala (in our brain) judges a situation and decides whether or not it is stressful 2. If the situation is judged as being stressful, the hypothalamus (at the base of the brain) is activated. 3. The hypothalamus sends signals to the pituitary gland and the adrenal medulla. 4. Adrenaline is released from the adrenal medulla. 5. Adrenaline leads to arousal of the sympathetic nervous system and reduced activity in the parasympathetic nervous system. 6. Adrenaline also has several effects on the body, including: increasing the heart rate and blood pressure, redistributing blood to the muscles, decreasing digestive activity, and dilating the pupils in the eye. 7. Once the threat is over, the parasympathetic nervous system takes over to return the body to a balanced state Role of CNS The amygdala judges a situation as stressful or not stressful based on: Sensory input from sensory neurons via the spinal cord Stored memories (i.e. what happened the last time we were in a similar situation) Our schema (mental representations) Input from the temporal lobes – auditory cortex and the occipital lobe - visual cortex. If the situation is judged as being stressful, the hypothalamus (at the base of the brain) is activated. Role of the ANS The ANS is the part of the peripheral nervous system that acts as a control system, maintaining homeostasis in the body. These activities are generally performed without conscious control. Includes the pituitary gland and adrenal medulla, and the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous systems. The Fight or Flight Response acts via the Sympathomedullary Pathway (SAM). The role of adrenaline Adrenaline is produced in the centre (medulla) of the adrenal glands and in some neurons of the central nervous system. The overall effect of adrenaline is to prepare the body for the ‘fight or flight’ response in times of stress, i.e. for vigorous and/or sudden action. Key actions of adrenaline include: Increasing the heart rate Increasing blood pressure Expanding the air passages of the lungs Dilating the pupil in the eye Redistributing blood to the muscles Altering the body’s metabolism, to maximise blood glucose levels (primarily for the brain). Decrease in digestive activity (don’t feel hungry/dry mouth/lower saliva production) Liver releases glucose for energy. Evaluation of fight or flight Lab studies and individual differences 1. Measuring stress hormones can be done within a clinical setting which yields objective, empirical data. 2. If this data shows consistency/reliability across multiple studies then the theory is supported. 3. However, there is considerable variation in level and type of hormones released by different people, and in response to different stressors – not a simple physiological process. People without adrenal glands need hormonal supplements to survive stress. 4. This shows that whilst the theory can explain the process of fight or flight, the individual differences mean that the theory isn’t a fully comprehensive one that is generalisable to all people The ‘freeze’ response 1. The fight or flight theory predicts human beings will either fight or flee from danger, however human behaviour is not limited to only two responses. 2. Gray (1988) suggests that the first response to danger is to avoid it altogether, which is demonstrated by a ‘freeze’ response. 3. During the freeze response, humans are hyper-vigilant while they appraise the situation to decide the best course of action. 4. This suggests that the fight-or-flight explanation of behaviour is limited and does not fully explain the complex cognitive and biological factors that underpin the human responses to stress/danger. Beta bias 1. The fight or flight theory does not fully explain the stress response in females. 2. Taylor et al. (2002) suggest that females adopt a ‘tend and befriend’ response in stressful/dangerous situations: Women are more likely to protect their offspring (tending) and form alliances with other women (befriending), rather than fight an adversary or flee. 3. This highlights a beta bias within this area of psychology: psychologists assumed that females responded in the same way as males until Taylor suggested otherwise. 4. Therefore, the original fight or flight explanation may have been limited in its application to females. Questions 1. What is the role of the hypothalamus in the fight or flight response? 2. Name some effects of adrenaline 3. What is the role of the parasympathetic nervous system? 4. Briefly outline the process of fight or flight 5. Who developed the ‘freeze’ response? 6. Briefly outline one evaluation point for fight or flight. Exam questions 1. Outline the role of adrenaline in the fight or flight response (4 marks) 2. You are walking home at night. It is dark and you hear someone running behind you. Your breathing quickens, your mouth dries and your heart pounds. Then you hear your friend call out, “Hey, wait for me! We can walk back together.” Your breathing slows down and after a couple of minutes you are walking home calmly with your friend. Explain the actions of the autonomic nervous system. Refer to the description above in your answer (4 marks). Online links to exam questions, mark schemes and examiner’s report for the above content: https://peqoiuu.exampro.net/  5. Localisation of Function in the Brain The theory that different areas of the brain are responsible for different behaviours, processes or activities. The brain is divided into two hemispheres connected by the corpus collosum. It is believed that the left hemisphere is responsible for some of the cognitive functions such as attention, processing of visual shapes and patterns, emotions, etc. The brain has been further sub-divided into 4 lobes: 1. Frontal lobe – at the front of the brain, responsible for thinking and working memory 2. Temporal lobe – on each side of the brain, by the ears, contains the auditory cortex and is responsible for some forms of memory. 3. Parietal lobe – at the top of your head, behind the frontal lobe, responsible for balance, pain, temperature etc. 4. Occipital lobe – located at the back of the brain, contains the visual cortex. There is further localisation within each lobe, as research shows that very specific areas of the brain can be responsible for specific functions. These include: The Motor area - A region of the posterior part of the frontal lobe involved in regulating movement. The Somatosensory area - An area of the parietal lobe that processes sensory information such as touch. Broca's area – located in the posterior part of frontal lobe of the brain in the left hemisphere (in most people) responsible for speech production. Wernicke's area - An area of the temporal lobe in the left hemisphere (in most people) responsible for language comprehension.  Evaluation of localisation of function Research 1. Initial research by Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke discovered that the language centres of the brain are predominantly focused on the left hemisphere. The Broca’s area, cited as being responsible for speech production is located in the posterior part of the PFC and the Wenicke’s area, cited as being responsible for speech comprehension, is located in the temporal lobe. 2. The initial findings are supported by more recent research Petersen et al. (1988) who used fMRi brain scans to demonstrate how Wernicke's area was active during a listening task and Broca's area was active during a reading task, suggesting that these areas of the brain have different functions. 3. However, research into cortical remapping from researchers such as, Grafman (2000) indicates that following brain trauma/injury homologous areas of the brain near to the injury or on the opposite hemisphere can adopt the function of areas such as Broca’s or Wernicke’s. 4. Therefore, whilst function may be initially tied to one location, the brain is a continually adapting and changing organ. Lashley's Research 1. The Lashley’s (1950) study of rats suggests that higher cognitive functions, such as the processes involved in learning, are not localised but distributed in a more holistic way in the brain. 2. Lashley removed areas of the cortex in rats that were learning a maze. No area was proven to be more important than any other area in terms of the rats' ability to learn the maze. The process of learning appeared to require every part of the cortex, rather than being confined to a particular area. 3. This research suggests that whilst it may be possible to pinpoint some functionality to specific areas, higher order processing may require multiple regions of the brain to be synthesised. One issue with Lashley's work was that it was conducted using animals (rats). 4. Therefore, whilst this animal research is insightful, one must be cautious in applying the findings of such a complex research area, to brain localisation and function in humans. Hubel and Wiesel - Animal Studies 1. Animal research questions the rigidity of localisation of function 2. Hubel and Wiesel (1963) conducted a study which involved sewing one eye of a kitten shut and analysing the brain's cortical responses. It was found that the area of the visual cortex associated with the shut eye was not idle (as had been predicted) but continued to process information from the open eye. 3. These research findings further indicate that whilst localisation of function exists, the brain is adaptable and has plasticity, which means it adapts and changes according to circumstance and trauma. 4. However, similar to Lashley’s research finding, we should be cautious when generalising Hubel and Wiesel’s findings of localisation in animals (cats) to human beings. Questions 1. What is the role of the temporal lobe? 2. Where is the motor cortex located? 3. Who discovered that language centres are predominantly in the left hemisphere? 4. What is the role of Wernicke’s area? 5. What did Grafman (2000) find? 6. Briefly outline the method of Hubel and Wiesel (1963) 7. Briefly outline Lashley’s (1950) findings Exam questions Discuss what research has shown about localisation of function in the brain (8 marks) Online links to exam questions, mark schemes and examiner’s report for the above content: https://nereiyz.exampro.net/  6. Plasticity and Functional Recovery of the Brain after Trauma Key word Definition Plasticity Also referred to as neuroplasticity or cortical remapping. This describes the brain’s tendency to change and adapt (functionally and physically) as a result of experience and new learning. Functional recovery A form of plasticity. Following damage through trauma, the brain’s ability to redistribute or transfer functions usually performed by a damaged area(s) to other undamaged area(s). Cross-modal reassignment Where the brain adapts and changes and so uses an area that would normally process a certain type of sensory information (such as sight) for a different type of sensory information instead (such as sound). What happens in the brain during recovery? The brain is able to rewire and reorganise itself by forming new synaptic connections close to the area of damage (a bit like avoiding roadworks on the way to school by finding a different route). Secondary neural pathways that would not typically be used to carry out certain functions are activated or 'unmasked' to enable functioning to continue, known as functional recovery. Functional Recovery of the Brain after Trauma Following physical injury, unaffected areas of the brain are often able to adapt and compensate for those areas that are damaged known as functional recovery. Healthy brain areas may take over the functions of those areas that are damaged, destroyed, or even missing. Neuroscientists suggest that this process can occur quickly after trauma (spontaneous recovery) and then slow down after several weeks or months. (Doidge, 2007). This functional recovery process is supported by a number of structural changes in the brain including: 1. Axonal sprouting - The growth of new nerve endings which connect with other undamaged nerve cells to form new neuronal pathways. 2. Reformation of blood vessels. 3. Recruitment of homologous (similar) areas on the opposite side of the brain to perform specific tasks. An example would be if Broca's area were damaged on the left side of the brain, the right-sided equivalent would carry out its functions. After a period of time, functionality may then shift back to the left side. Functional plasticity tends to reduce with age. The brain has a greater propensity for reorganisation in childhood as it is constantly adapting to new experiences and learning.  Evaluation of plasticity Research into Plasticity 1. There is research support for plasticity. 2. Maguire et al. (2000) studied the brains of London taxi drivers and found significantly more grey matter in the posterior hippocampus than in a matched control group. This part of the brain is associated with the development of spatial and navigational skills in humans and other animals. 3. The research findings of this study indicate that as new knowledge is acquired this grey matter in the hippocampus grows. 4. Therefore, this supports the theory of neuroplasticity. Cross-modal reassignment 1. Research support also supports cross-modal reassignment. 2. Grafman (2000) has shown that when a brain region does not receive sensory data as expected, say because a person has become blind, this brain region may become repurposed for another sense, such as touch (cross-modal reassignment). This can enable blind people to “see” Braille text with their fingers. 3. Likewise, some blind people learn to reuse their visual centres for hearing sounds, thus becoming capable of “echolocation” to navigate around environments (Thaler & Goodale, 2010). 4. This means that neuroplasticity is not only supported by robust, empirical lab research, it also has a practical application to the changes that can occur to people in real life. Evidence for the recruitment of homologous areas 1. Research also supports the recruitment of homologous areas. 2. Grafman (2000) reported the case study of a youth with a right parietal lobe injury. The left parietal lobe took over some functions normally occurring on the right side, i.e. the recruitment of homologous areas in the left parietal lobe occurred. 3. As we know from Sperry’s research the left hemisphere controls movement in the right side of the body and the right hemisphere controls movement in the left side of the body. The youth then had difficulty with tasks normally occurring on the left side, because some right-side equivalents had taken over left-side brain resources. 4. Grafman’s research is further evidence that neuroplasticity occurs in some people following brain trauma. Age, plasticity and the Concept of Cognitive Reserve 1. Evidence suggests that a person's educational attainment may influence how well the brain functionally adapts after injury. 2. Schneider et al. (2014) discovered that the more time brain injury patients had spent in education - which was taken as an indication of their 'cognitive reserve' - the greater their chances of a disability-free recovery (DFR). 3. This means that we can learn from research such as this that stimulation and exercise of the brain, particularly during the developing years can have a positive impact on brain recovery as a person ages – in the form of cognitive reserve. 4. Thus, brain plasticity can be beneficial to our lives. Questions 1. What is plasticity? 2. Give three changes in the brain that take place during functional recovery. 3. When does functional recovery usually occur? 4. How does Maguire et al. (2000) support plasticity? 5. What is a real-life example of when cross-modal reassignment is used? 6. What did Schneider et al. (2014) find? Exam questions 1. Lotta’s grandmother suffered a stroke to the left hemisphere, damaging Broca’s area and the motor cortex. a) Using your knowledge of the function of Broca’s area and the motor cortex, describe the problems that Lotta’s grandmother is likely to experience (4 marks). b) Lotta worries that because of her grandmother’s age she will not be able to make any recovery. Use your knowledge of plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma, explain why Lotta might be wrong (4 marks). Online links to exam questions, mark schemes and examiner’s report for the above content: https://todynei.exampro.net/  7. Split-Brain Research into Hemispheric Lateralisation - Sperry Hemispheric lateralisation - The idea that the two halves (hemispheres) of the brain are functionally different and that certain mental processes and behaviours are mainly controlled by one hemisphere. Split-brain research - A series of studies, which began in the 1960s (and are still ongoing) involving epileptic patients who had experienced a surgical separation of the hemispheres of the brain. Split-brain Studies Sperry's (1968) studies involved a unique group of 11 individuals, all of whom had undergone the same surgical procedure - an operation called a Corpus Callosotomy - in which the corpus callosum and other tissues which connect the two hemispheres were cut down the middle in order to separate the two hemispheres and control frequent and severe epileptic seizures. This meant that for these split-brain patients the main communication line between the two hemispheres was removed. This allowed Sperry and his colleagues to see the extent to which the two hemispheres were specialised functions, and whether the hemispheres performed tasks independently of one another. Procedure Sperry devised a general procedure in which an image or word could be projected to a patient's right visual field (processed by the left hemisphere) and the same, or different, image could be projected to the left visual field (processed by the right hemisphere). In the 'normal' brain, the corpus callosum would immediately share the information between both hemispheres giving a complete picture of the visual world. However, presenting the image to one hemisphere of a split-brain patient meant that the information could not be conveyed from that hemisphere to the other. This was a quasi-experiment Sperry - Key Findings Describing what you see When a picture of an object was shown to a patient's right visual field, the patient could easily describe what was seen. If the same object was shown to the left visual field, the patient could not describe what was seen, and typically reported that there was nothing there. For most people language is processed in the left hemisphere. Thus, the patient's inability to describe objects in the left visual field (processed in the right hemisphere) is because of the lack of language centres in the right hemisphere! In the normal brain, messages from the right hemisphere would be relayed to the language centres in the left hemisphere. Recognition by touch Patients were able to select a matching object from a grab bag of different objects using their left hand (linked to right hemisphere). The objects were placed behind a screen so as not to be seen. The left hand was also able to select an object that was most closely associated with an object presented to the left visual field (for instance, an ashtray was selected in response to a picture of a cigarette). In each case, the patient was not able to verbally identify what they had seen but could nevertheless 'understand' what the object was using the right hemisphere and select the corresponding object accordingly. Composite words If two words were presented simultaneously, one on either side of the visual field (for example, a 'key' on the left and 'ring' on the right as in the picture), the patient would write with their left hand the word 'key' (left hand goes to right hemisphere linked to left visual field) and say the word 'ring'. Matching faces When asked to match a face from a series of other faces, the picture processed by the right hemisphere (left visual field) was consistently selected, whilst the picture presented to the left hemisphere was consistently ignored. When a composite picture made up of two different halves of a face was presented – one-half to each hemisphere - the left hemisphere dominated in terms of verbal description whereas the right hemisphere dominated in terms of selecting a matching picture. Split Brain Research: Conclusion The left hemisphere is more geared towards analytic and verbal tasks The right is more adept at performing spatial tasks and music The right hemisphere can only produce rudimentary words and phrases but contributes emotional and holistic content to language. Research suggests that the left hemisphere is the analyser whilst the right hemisphere is the synthesiser.  Situation Explain what would happen in split brain patients… 1. An object is presented in the left visual field and the patient is asked to pick the object up with their right hand. 2. An object is placed in the left hand and the patient is asked to name it 3. A word is presented to the right visual field and the patient is asked to name it 4. An object is placed in the right hand and the patient is asked to find the object with the same hand. 5. An object is placed in the left hand and the patient is asked to find the object with the right hand. 6. Two different objects are placed in the left hand (key) and right hand (ring). The objects are then hidden within other objects and patient is asked to find them. 7. A patient was shown an object to the left visual field and asked to draw it with the right hand. 8. A patient was shown an object to the right visual field and asked to draw it with the left hand and then right hand. 9. Two different words are shown to the left (Ball) and right (Pen) visual field. They are asked to name one and pick the other up. 10. The patient is shown a split face with left half of the image being a man and right half being a woman  Evaluation of Sperry Strengths of the Methodology 1. The experiments involving split-brain patients made use of highly specialised and standardised procedures. Sperry's method of presenting visual information to one hemispheric field at a time was quite ingenious, especially for its time. 2. Typically, participants would be asked to stare at a given point, the 'fixation point', whilst one eye was blindfolded. The image projected would be flashed up for one-tenth of a second, meaning the split-brain patient would not have time to move their eye across the image and so spread the information across both sides of the visual field, and subsequently, both sides of the brain. 3. This allowed Sperry to vary aspects of the basic procedure and ensured that only one hemisphere was receiving information at a time. 4. Thus, he developed a very useful and well-controlled split brain procedure which has been developed and refined over time through various case studies (Kim Peek, JW and WJ etc) all of which have supported the theory of hemispheric lateralisation. Issues with Generalisation 1. Many researchers have urged caution in their widespread acceptance, as split-brain patients constitute such an unusual sample of people. 2. There were only 11 who took part in all variations of the basic procedure, all of whom had a history of epileptic seizures. It has been argued that this may have caused unique changes in the brain that may have influenced the findings. It is also the case that some participants had experienced more disconnection of the two hemispheres as part of their surgical procedure than others. 3. Finally, the control group Sperry used, made up of 11 people with no history of epilepsy, may have been inappropriate. 4. This narrow field of participants questions the applicability and generalisability of the findings of split-brain research to the general population. Alternative explanation 1. Recent findings in the field of neuroscience shows that neuroplasticity takes place throughout the lifetime and sometimes as a result of brain injury. 2. Cortical remapping can occur where corresponding dormant areas of the brain can take over functions after damage has occurred. This remapping can occur in a nearby area of the brain as well as opposing hemispheres. 3. This shows that the brain function, and in this case lateralisation is not completely fixed, but it has the potential to adapt and change. 4. This questions conclusiveness of the findings of Sperry as, as our knowledge of neuroplasticity increases we see the impact of events, trauma and the environment can change our localised and lateralised brain function – so calling into question the biologically deterministic explanation of Sperry’s findings. Questions 1. What design was Sperry’s study? 2. How many participants took part in Sperry’s study? 3. What procedure did all split-brain patients go through? 4. What was Sperry’s main conclusion? 5. Give one strength of Sperry’s study 6. Why might Sperry’s study have issues with generalisation? Exam Questions 1. Split brain patients show unusual behaviour when tested in experiments. Briefly explain how unusual behaviour in split-brain patients could be tested in an experiment (2 marks). 2. Briefly evaluate research using split brain patients to investigate hemispheric lateralisation of function (4 marks). Online links to exam questions, mark schemes and examiner’s report for the above content: https://vipyjor.exampro.net/  8. Methods of Investigating the Brain Method of studying the brain Definition Functional magnetic resonance A method used to measure brain activity while a person imaging (fMRI) is performing a task. This enables researchers to detect which regions of the brain are rich in oxygen and thus are active. Electroencephalogram (EEG) A record of the tiny electrical impulses produced by the brain’s activity. By measuring characteristic wave patterns. Event-related potentials (ERPs) The brain’s electrophysiological response to a specific sensory, cognitive or motor event can be isolated through statistical analysis of EEG data. Post-mortem examinations The brain is analysed after death to determine whether certain observed behaviours during the patient’s lifetime can be linked to abnormalities in the brain. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRl) fMRI works by detecting the changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occur as a result of neural (brain) activity in specific parts of the brain. When a brain area is more active it consumes more oxygen and to meet this increased demand, blood flow is directed to the active area (known as the haemodynamic response). fMRI produces 3-dimensional images (activation maps) showing which parts of the brain are involved in a particular mental process and this has important implications for our understanding of localisation of function. Strengths Unlike other scanning techniques such as PET, it does not rely on the use of radiation. If administered correctly it is virtually risk-free, non-invasive and straightforward to use. It also produces images that have very high spatial resolution, depicting detail by the millimetre, and providing a clear picture of how brain activity is localised. Weaknesses fMRI is expensive compared to other neuroimaging techniques and can only capture a clear image if the person stays perfectly still. It has poor temporal resolution because there is around a 5-second time-lag behind the image on screen and the initial firing of neuronal activity. fMRI can only measure blood flow in the brain, it cannot home in on the activity of individual neurons and so it can be difficult to tell exactly what kind of brain activity is being represented on screen. Electroencephalogram (EEG) EEGs measure electrical activity within the brain via electrodes that are fixed to an individual's scalp using a skullcap. The scan recording represents the brainwave patterns that are generated from the action of millions of neurons, providing an overall account of brain activity. EEG is often used by clinicians as a diagnostic tool as unusual arrhythmic patterns of activity (i.e. no particular rhythm) may indicate neurological abnormalities such as epilepsy, tumours or disorders of sleep. Strengths EEG has proved invaluable in the diagnosis of conditions such as epilepsy, a disorder characterised by random bursts of activity in the brain that can easily be detected on screen. Similarly, it has contributed much to our understanding of the stages involved in sleep. Unlike fMRI, EEG technology has extremely high temporal resolution. Today's EEG technology can accurately detect brain activity at a resolution of a single millisecond. Weakness The EEG signal is not useful for pinpointing the exact source of neural activity, and it does not allow researchers to distinguish between activities originating in different but adjacent locations = low spatial resolution Event-related Potentials (ERPs) ERPs are types of brainwaves that are triggered by particular events. This data is taken from an EEG recording, which contains all the neural responses associated with specific sensory, cognitive and motor events. Using a statistical averaging technique, all extraneous brain activity from the original EEG recording is filtered out leaving only those responses that relate to, say, the presentation of a specific stimulus or performance of a specific task. Research has revealed many different forms of ERP and how, for example, these are linked to cognitive processes such as attention and perception. Strengths As ERPs are derived from EEG measurements, they have excellent temporal resolution, especially when compared to neuroimaging techniques such as fMRI, and this has led to their widespread use in the measurement of cognitive functions and deficits. Researchers have been able to identify many different types of ERP and describe the precise role of these in cognitive functioning. Weaknesses Critics have pointed to a lack of standardisation in ERP methodology between different research studies, which makes it difficult to confirm findings. In order to establish pure data in ERP studies, background noise and extraneous material must be completely eliminated, and this may not always be easy to achieve. Post-mortem Examinations A technique involving the analysis, usually surgically, of a person's brain following their death. Areas of damage within the brain are examined after death as a means of establishing the likely cause of the affliction the person suffered. This may also involve comparison with a neurotypical brain in order to ascertain the extent of the difference. Strengths Post-mortem evidence was vital in providing a foundation for early understanding of key processes in the brain. EG Paul Broca and Karl Wernicke. Post-mortem examinations provide a detailed examination of the anatomical structure and neurochemical aspects of the brain that is not possible with other scanning techniques (e.g. EEG, ERP and fMRI). Post-mortem examinations can access areas like the hypothalamus and hippocampus, which other scanning techniques cannot, and therefore provide researchers with an insight into these deeper brain regions, which  often provide a useful basis for further research. They are performed on the deceased, so no chance of causing problems for the patient. Weaknesses Observed damage to the brain may not be linked to the deficits under review but to some other unrelated trauma or decay. A further problem is that post-mortem studies raise ethical issues of consent from the patient before death. Eg HM A comparison of Brain Imaging Techniques Issue fMri EEG ERP Temporal Low High High Resolution Spatial High Low Low Resolution Measures Indirectly (uses BOLD Directly Directly – in response brain activity response) to a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event Level of Extensive training Some training required expertise needed Cost Very expensive Less expensive Less expensive that fMri that fMri Invasive Non-invasive – machine Non-invasive – cap Non-invasive is very loud may be uncomfortable Useful for: Abnormality of: Sleep Dementia Speaking disorders Parkinson's Moving Seizures disease Sensing, or Movement Multiple sclerosis planning. disorders Head injuries Planning for brain Migraines Stroke surgery Obsessive To detect the compulsive disorder effects of tumours, stroke, head and brain injury Alzheimer's Autism Questions 1. What does an fMRI measure? 2. What is a weakness of fMRIs? 3. What is the difference between an EEG and an ERP? 4. What is a strength of post-mortem examinations? 5. Compare the spatial and temporal resolutions of a) fMRI b) EEG c) ERP 6. What are ERPs useful for? Exam questions 1. Which method of studying the brain would most accurately identify specific brain areas activated during a cognitive task? Shade one circle only (1 mark). Electroencephalogram (EEGs) Event-related potentials (ERPs) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRIs) Post-mortem examinations 2. Explain one difference and one similarity between Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) as ways of studying the brain (4 marks). Online links to exam questions, mark schemes and examiner’s report for the above content: https://uimeaez.exampro.net/  9. Biological Rhythms Key word Definition Biological rhythm A change in body processes or behaviour in response to cyclical changes within the environment e.g. the sleep/wake cycle Ultradian rhythms Biological rhythms which last less than 24 hours, e.g. stages of sleep Circadian rhythms Biological rhythms which last for around 24 hours, e.g. the sleep/wake cycle and core body temperature Infradian rhythms Biological rhythms which last longer than 24 hours, e.g. the menstrual cycle Biological Rhythms All living organisms - plants, animals and people - are subject to biological rhythms and these exert an important influence on the way in which body systems behave. All biological rhythms are governed by two things: 1. The body's internal biological 'clocks', which are called endogenous pacemakers 2. External changes in the environment known as exogenous zeitgebers. Circadian Rhythm: The Sleep/Wake Cycle The fact that we feel drowsy when it's night-time and alert during the day demonstrates the effect of daylight - an important exogenous zeitgeber - on our sleep/wake cycle. Endogenous Pacemakers (influences from inside the body) Some aspects of our biological rhythms may be genetically determined, eg dopamine levels may affect mood/sleep The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which is part of the hypothalamus (potentially triggered by darkness/light) may be an internal clock. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) contains neurons that exhibit a circadian pattern of activity and regulate melatonin secretion by the pineal gland in response to the environmental light/dark. Exogenous Zietgebers (external influences on the body) Light – specifically sunlight is the most influential Zietgeber, triggering the SCN Social cues – usually imposed by parents, norms etc. Siffre's Cave Study (1960s) Michael Siffre (pronounce 'Seef') spent several extended periods underground to study the effects on his own biological rhythms. Deprived of exposure to natural light and sound, but with access to adequate food and drink, Siffre re-surfaced in September after two months in the caves of the Southern Alps believing it to be mid-August! A decade later, he performed a similar feat but this time for six months in a Texan cave.  In each case, his 'free-running' biological rhythm settled down to one that was just beyond the usual 24 hours (around 25 hours) though he did continue to fall asleep and wake up on a regular schedule. Practical Application to Shift Work Knowledge of circadian rhythms has given researchers a better understanding of the adverse consequences that can occur as a result of their disruption (known as desynchronisation). Night workers engaged in shift work experience a period of reduced concentration around 6 in the morning (a circadian trough) meaning mistakes and accidents are more likely (Boivin et al. 1996). Research has also suggested a relationship between shift work and poor health: shift workers are three times more likely to develop heart disease (which may in part be due to the stress of adjusting to different sleep/wake patterns and the lack of, or poor quality sleep during the day. Thus, research into the sleep/wake cycle may have economic implications in terms of how best to manage worker productivity. Jet Lag Travelling across different time zones can mean that people have to adjust their body clock. It can take about a week to adjust to a new time zone Less jet lag when travelling East to West, probably because that adds hours to our day. Evaluation for circadian rhythms Practical Application to Drug Treatments - Chronotherpaeutics 1. Circadian rhythms co-ordinate a number of the body's basic processes such as heart rate, digestion and hormone levels. This in turn has an effect on pharmacokinetics, that is, the action of drugs on the body and how well they are absorbed and distributed. 2. Research into circadian rhythms has revealed that there are certain peak times during the day or night when drugs are likely to be at their most effective. 3. This has led to the development of guidelines to do with the timing of drug dosing for a whole range of medications including anticancer, cardiovascular, respiratory, anti-ulcer and anti-epileptic drugs. 4. This means that research into circadian rhythms is still developing and is providing useful, practical applications to real life. Use of Case Studies and Small Samples 1. Studies of the sleep/wake cycle tend to involve small groups of participants, or single individuals, as in the case of Siffre. 2. The people involved may not be representative of the wider population and this limits the extent to which meaningful generalisations can be made. In his most recent cave experience in 1999, Siffre observed, at the age of 60, that his internal clock ticked much more slowly than when he was a young man. 3. This illustrates the fact that, even when the same person is involved, there are factors that vary which may prevent general conclusions being drawn. 4. This means that the findings of such studies are limited in their generalisations to the wider population. Social Cues 1. Infants are seldom on the same sleep/wake cycle as the rest of the family. 2. In human infants, the initial sleep/wake cycle is pretty much random. At about 6 weeks of age, the circadian rhythms begin and by about 16 weeks, most babies are entrained. The schedules imposed by parents are likely to be a key influence here, including adult-determined mealtimes and bedtimes. 3. Research also suggests that adapting to local times for eating and sleeping (rather than responding to one’s own feelings of hunger and fatigue, is an effective way of entraining circadian rhythms and beating jet lag when travelling long distances. 4. Therefore, social cues offer practical applications of research into circadian rhythms. Individual Differences 1. Whilst the sleep/wake cycle is an established theory, it is important to consider the differences between individuals when it comes to circadian cycles. 2. Duffy et al. (2001) found that ‘morning people’ prefer to rise and go to bed early (about 6 am and 10 pm) whereas ‘evening people’ prefer to wake and go to bed later (about 10 am and 1 am). 3. This demonstrates that there may be innate individual differences in circadian rhythms, which suggests that researchers should focus on these differences during investigations. Temperature 1. Additionally, it has been suggested that temperature may be more important than light in determining circadian rhythms. 2. Buhr et al. (2010) found that fluctuations in temperature set the timing of cells in the body and caused tissues and organs to become active or inactive. Buhr claimed that information about light levels is transformed into neural messages that set the body’s temperature. 3. Body temperature fluctuates on a 24-hour circadian rhythm and even small changes in it can send a powerful signal to our body clocks. 4. This shows that circadian rhythms are controlled and affected by several different factors, and suggests that a more holistic approach to research might be preferable. lnfradian Rhythms The Menstrual Cycle The female menstrual cycle, an example of an infradian rhythm, is governed by monthly changes in hormone levels, which regulate ovulation. The cycle refers to the time between the first day of a woman's period, when the womb lining is shed, to the day before her next period. The typical cycle takes approximately 28 days to complete (though anywhere between 24 and 35 days is generally considered normal). During each cycle, rising levels of the hormone oestrogen cause the ovary to develop an egg and release it (ovulation). After ovulation, the hormone progesterone helps the womb lining to grow thicker, readying the body for pregnancy. If pregnancy does not occur, the egg is absorbed into the body, the womb lining comes away and leaves the body (the menstrual flow). Research Study - Stern and McClintock Although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, evidence suggests that it may be  influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women. Stern and McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles might synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones. McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods. Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles, via a cotton pad placed in their armpit. On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on. McClintock found that 68% of women experienced changes to their cycle, which brought them closer to the cycle of their 'odour donor'. Evolutionary Basis of the Menstrual Cycle Menstrual synchrony, of the kind observed in the McClintock study, is thought by many to have an evolutionary value. For our ancestors it may have been advantageous for females to menstruate together and therefore fall pregnant around the same time. This would mean that new-borns could be cared for collectively within a social group increasing the chances of the offspring's survival. The validity of the evolutionary perspective has been questioned by some. Schank (2004) has argued that if there were too many females cycling together within a social group, this would produce competition for the highest quality males (and thereby lowering the fitness of any potential offspring). From this point of view, the avoidance of synchrony would appear to be the most adaptive evolutionary strategy and therefore naturally selected. Criticisms have been made of early synchronisation studies and the methods employed. Commentators argue that there are many factors that may affect change in a woman's menstrual cycle, including stress, changes in diet, exercise, etc., that might act as confounding variables. Other studies (e.g. by Trevathan et al. 1993) failed to find any evidence of menstrual synchrony in all-female samples. Additional notes: Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) SAD is a depressive disorder which has a seasonal pattern of onset, and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-V. The main symptoms of SAD are persistent low mood alongside a general lack of activity and interest in life. SAD is often referred to as the winter blues as the symptoms are triggered during the winter months when the number of daylight hours becomes shorter. SAD is a particular type of infradian rhythm called a circannual rhythm as it is subject to a yearly cycle. However, it can also be classed as a circadian rhythm as SAD may be due to the disruption of the sleep/wake cycle and this can be attributed to prolonged periods of darkness during winter. Psychologists have hypothesised that the hormone melatonin is implicated in the cause of SAD. During the night, the pineal gland secretes melatonin until dawn when there is an increase in light. During winter, the lack of light means this secretion process continues for longer. This is thought to have a knock-on effect on the production of serotonin in the brain - a chemical linked to the onset of depressive symptoms. Practical Application - SAD One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy. This is a light box that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening. It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD, relieving symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers (Eastman et al. 1998). However, the same study recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a 'sham negative-ion generator, casting doubt on the chemical influence of phototherapy.  Ultradian Rhythms One of the most intensively researched ultradian rhythms is the stages of sleep - the sleep cycle. Stages of Sleep and Sleep Cycles Typically, a person would begin a sleep cycle every 90-120 minutes resulting in four to five cycles per sleep time, with each stage lasting between 5 to 15 minutes. The first sleep cycles each night have relatively short REM sleeps and long periods of deep sleep but later in the night, REM periods lengthen and deep sleep time decreases. The 4 stages of sleep There are four stages of sleep: Non-REM (NREM) sleep (Stages 1, 2 & 3) and REM sleep. Periods of wakefulness occur before and intermittently throughout the various sleep stages or as one shifts sleeping position. Wake is the period when brain wave activity is at its highest and muscle tone is active. Stage 1: The lightest stage of NREM sleep. Often defined by the presence of slow eye movements. A drowsy sleep stage that can be easily disrupted causing awakenings or arousals. Muscle tone throughout the body relaxes and brain wave activity begins to slow from that of wake. Occasionally people may experience hypnic jerks/abrupt muscle spasms and may even experience the sensation of falling while drifting in and out of Stage 1. Stage 2: The first actual stage of defined NREM sleep. Awakenings or arousals do not occur as easily as in Stage 1 sleep and the slow-moving eye rolls discontinue. Brain waves continue to slow with specific bursts of rapid activity known as sleep spindles intermixed with sleep structures known as K complexes. Both sleep spindles and K complexes are thought to serve as protection for the brain from awakening from sleep. Body temperature begins to decrease and heart rate begins to slow. Stage 3: Deep NREM sleep (the deepest stage of sleep) The most restorative stage of sleep, least likely to be disturbed by external stimuli. Consists of delta waves or slow waves. Awakenings or arousals are rare and it is often difficult to awaken someone in Stage 3 sleep. Parasomnias (sleepwalking, sleep talking or somniloquy and night terrors) occur during the deepest stage of sleep. Human growth hormone is released and restores your body and muscles from the stresses of the day. Your immune system also restores itself. Much less is known about deep sleep than REM sleep. It may be during this stage that the brain also refreshes itself for new learning the following day. Fun fact! Deep sleep reduces your sleep drive, and provides the most restorative sleep of all the sleep stages. This is why if you take a short nap during the day, you are still able to fall asleep at night. However, if you take a nap long enough to fall into deep sleep, you have more difficulty falling asleep at night because you reduce your need for sleep. Stage 4: Rem Sleep Breathing becomes more rapid, irregular and shallow. Eyes jerk rapidly and limb muscles are temporarily paralysed. Brain waves increase to levels experienced when a person is awake In addition, heart rate increases, blood pressure rises, males develop erections and the body loses some of the ability to regulate its temperature. REM is the stage where the most vivid dreams occur Muscle paralysis often accompanies REM sleep. This muscle atonia or muscle paralysis occurs as a protective means to keep one from acting out their dreams. Obstructive Sleep Apnea is often the worst during REM periods due to the lack of muscle tone within the muscles of the airway. Scientists believe this may be to help prevent us from injury while trying to act out our dreams. Sleep structure A person’s sleep time (approximately 6-8 hours for adults) can be thought of as 2 halves. The first half for a majority of people consists mostly of Stages 2 and 3 with sporadic periods of Stage 1 and short REM periods. As the night progresses, Stage 3 begins to diminish in quantity while Stages 1 and 2 remain with lengthening periods of REM occurring. Evidence for distinct stages in sleep - Dement and Kleitman 1. Research supports the distinct stages in sleep 2. Dement and Kleitman (1957) monitored the sleep patterns of nine adult participants in a sleep lab. 3. Brainwave activity was recorded on an EEG and the researchers controlled for the effects of caffeine and alcohol. REM activity during sleep was highly correlated with the experience of dreaming, brain activity varied according to how vivid dreams were, and participants woken during dreaming reported very accurate recall of their dreams. 4. The study suggests that REM (dream) sleep is an important component of the ultradian sleep cycle. Summary of biological rhythms Circadian Infradian Ultradian Duration ~ 24 hours > 24 hours < 24 hours Example Sleep/wake cycle Menstrual cycle Stages of sleep Study Siffre Stern and Dement and McClintock (1998) Kleitman (1957) Real-life application Jet-lag Pheremones Dreams Shift work SAD Sleep disorders Questions 1. What are the three types of rhythm? 2. Give one difference between ultradian rhythms and infradian rhythms 3. Give an example of a circadian rhythm. 4. What study can be used for ultradian rhythms? 5. Briefly outline this study 6. Briefly describe Stage 2 of the sleep cycle. 7. Give a practical application of circadian rhythms. Exam question - plan an answer for this 8 marker Julia complains that her baby is sleeping all day and keeping her awake all night. Using your knowledge of research into exogenous zeitgebers, discuss what Julia could do to encourage her baby to sleep more at night. (Total 8 marks) Online links to exam questions, mark schemes and examiner’s report for the above content: https://vipaxem.exampro.net/ Key term glossary - Biopsychology ACTH - Hormone released by the pituitary gland. Stimulates the adrenal glands to release adrenaline into the bloodstream Action potential - A spike in electric charge in an axon caused by sodium ions crossing the cell membrane. Adrenal glands - Small glands on top of each kidney that produce hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol Adrenaline - Key hormone in the stress response that is produced by the adrenal glands and increases heart rate, breathing rate etc. Autonomic nervous system - Sub-division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary responses like breathing and heart rate Axon - A single long slender fibre that carries the nerve impulse away from the cell body Axon terminal - The very end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters and makes synaptic contact with the next neuron in the chain Central nervous system - Sub-system of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord Chromosome - Hold the genetic material that is passed between parents and offspring. Humans have 23 pairs Concordance rate - The extent to which both twins share the same characteristic Dendrites - Root like structures protruding from the cell body that receive signals from other neurons DZ twins - Non-identical twins who share 50% of their genes Empirical Data - Based on scientific testing or personal experience rather than theory or logic Endocrine system - A collection of organs that secrete hormones into the blood stream Evolution - Gradual changes in an inherited characteristic of a species over many generations Excitation - Occurs when a link between a neurotransmitter and receptor site in a synapse makes the receptor site’s cell more likely to act Fight or flight response - The way an animal (including humans) responds to stress as it becomes physiologically aroused to fight an aggressor or to run away Genotype - A person's unique genetic make-up that is coded in their chromosomes and fixed at conception Hormones - Biochemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream in order to target specific organs Hypothalamus - Part of the brain that links the nervous system to the endocrine system. Releases hormones that stimulate the pituitary gland Inference - Process of drawing conclusions about general patterns of behaviour Inhibition - occurs when a link between a neurotransmitter and receptor site in a synapse makes the receptor site’s cell less likely to act. Motor neuron - Carries signals from the central nervous system to internal organs and muscles Myelin sheath - A fatty layer that protects the exon and speeds up the electrical transmission of the nerve impulse MZ twins - Identical twins who share 100% of their genes Natural selection - The way that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances the ability to survive and reproduce will continue in future generations Nervous system - Bodily system consisting of central nervous system and peripheral nervous system that provides rapid responses to stimuli Neuron - Cells within the nervous system that process and transmit messages Neurotransmitter - Chemicals that transfer signals from one neuron to another across the synapses that lie between them Objective - Not influenced by private emotions, perceptions, or biases Parasympathetic nervous system - Sub-division of the autonomic nervous system that controls the 'rest and digest' response Peripheral nervous system - Sub-system of the nervous system that transmits messages from the body to the central nervous system and back again Phenotype - The expression of a person's genetic make-up that can be influenced by the environment Pituitary gland - The 'master gland' of the endocrine system that is located in the brain and controls the release of hormones from other glands Postsynaptic Receptor sites - In the dendrites of the receiving neuron, they take up the neurotransmitter once it has crossed the synaptic gap Relay neuron - Carries signals between sensory and motor neurons or connect to other relay neurons within the central nervous system Sensory neuron - Carries signals from the senses to the central nervous system Somatic nervous system - Sub-division of the peripheral nervous system that controls muscle movement and receives information from sensory receptors Structuralism - Using the experiment method to find the building blocks of thought Sympathetic nervous system - Sub-division of the autonomic nervous system that controls the 'fight or flight' response Synapse - The tiny gap between one neuron and the next Synaptic transmission - The way that signals between neurons are transmitted chemically across the synaptic gap Twin study - Used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing concordance rates between pairs of twins Biopsychology: Content questions for revision The Nervous System 1. What does the nervous system consist of? 2. What does the central nervous system do? 3. What is the peripheral nervous system? 4. What are the 2 main functions of the somatic nervous system? 5. What is the autonomic nervous system? 6. What is the endocrine system? 7. What is the function of a gland? 8. What are hormones? 9. Give 2 examples of hormones  Fight or Flight 10. What is the fight or flight response? 11. How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems work during fight or flight? 12. Explain how Taylor considered that the fight or flight does not explain stress response in females. 13. How can fight or flight be considered a maladaptive response? 14. What is the function of adrenaline? Neurons 15. What is a neuron? 16. Name the 3 types of neurons. 17. What is the function of sensory neurons? 18. What is the function of relay neurons? 19. What is the function of motor neurons? 20. What is the process of synaptic transmission? 21. What are neurotransmitters? 22. Name two neurotransmitters 23. What is excitation? 24. What is inhibition? 25. What is summation? 26. What is meant by synaptic transmission? 27. What is meant by localisation of function? The Brain 27. What is the function of the Motor area and where is it located? 28. What is the function of the Somatosensory area and where is it located? 29. What is the function of the Visual area and where is it located? 30. What is the function of the Auditory area and where is it located? 31. What is the function of the Broca's area and where is it located? 32. What is the function of the Wernicke's area and where is it located 33. What is the function of the frontal lobe and where is it located? 34. What is the function of the temporal lobe and where is it located? 35. What is the function of the parietal lobe and where is it located? 36. What is the function of the occipital lobe and where is it located? 37. How does the case study of Phineas Gage support localisation of function? 38. What did Lashley’s (1950) research demonstrate? Neuroplasticity 40. What is meant by neuroplasticity? 41. What did the research by McGuire demonstrate? 42. Define the term functional recovery. 43. Name 3 things the brain does during recovery. 44. What is meant by the term axonal sprouting? 45. Explain negative plasticity 46. How does age affect plasticity? 47. What did Hubel and Wiesel’s research demonstrate? 48. What did Schneider demonstrate about education? Split Brain Research 49. What is meant by hemispheric lateralisation? 50. What is meant by split-brain research? 51. What is the area that connects the 2 hemisphere known as? 52. Who conducted the groundbreaking split-brain research? 53. How many patients did he study? 54. What is the name of the surgery where the 2 hemispheres are disconnected? 55. What were the 4 key findings of Sperry’s research? Brain Scanning Techniques 56. What is Functional Magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)? 57. Name 2 Strengths of fMRI. 58. Name 2 weaknesses of fMRI. 59. What is an electroencephalogram (EEG)? 60. Name 2 Strengths of EEG. 61. Name 2 weaknesses of EEG. 62. What is an event related potential (ERP)? 63. Name 2 Strengths of ERP. 64. Name 2 weaknesses of ERP. 65. What is a port mortem examination? 66. Name 2 Strengths of a port mortem examination. 67. Name 2 weaknesses of a. port mortem examination Biological Rhythms 68. Name the 3 biological rhythms 69. How long do circadian rhythms last? 70. What is an example of a circadian rhythm? 71. Using an example, what is an endogenous pacemaker? 72. Using an example, what is an exogenous zietgeber? 73. What is the name of the nucleus that is triggered by sunlight? 74. What hormone is affected by sunlight? 75. How is it affected? 76. What gland releases this hormone? 77. Where is that gland located? 78. Apart from sunlight, what other factors affect circadian rhythms? 79. Explain Michel Siffre’s study 80. Name two criticisms of Siffre’s study? 81. What is the name of the disruption of circadian rhythms? 82. Name the ways in which disruption of circadian rhythms adversely affect people. 83. What are the economic implications for the disruption of circadian rhythms? 84. Apart from shift work, name another way circadian rhythms are disrupted 85. What is the name of the practical application to drug treatment known as? 86. How long does an infradian rhythm last? 87. Name an example of an infradian rhythm 88. Who conducted a study about infradian rhythms? 89. What were the findings of this study? 90. How might infradian rhythms have an evolutionary basis? 91. How might Schank (2004) criticise the evolutionary basis? 92. Which researcher failed to find any evidence of synchronisation? 93. What is SAD? 94. What type of rhythm is SAD? 95. How can SAD be alleviated? 96. What is an ultradian rhythm? 97. Name one ultradian rhythm 98. How many stages of sleep are there thought to be? 99. How is sleep usually measured? 100. What were the findings of Dement and Kleitman (1957)?