Biology Revision Booklet (Higher) PDF

BIOLOGY TRIPLE SCIENCE REVISION BOOKLET Paper 1 & 2 Higher  TRIPLE SCIENCE REVISION TRACKER ​ HIGHER Review point RAG 1 Cell Biology 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Notes...

BIOLOGY TRIPLE SCIENCE REVISION BOOKLET Paper 1 & 2 Higher  TRIPLE SCIENCE REVISION TRACKER ​ HIGHER Review point RAG 1 Cell Biology 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Notes R R A A G Speak to teacher 1.1 What’s in Cells 1.1.1 Types of Cells 1.1.2 Standard Form 1.1.3 Animal & Plant Cells 1.1.4 Bacterial Cells 1.1.5 Cell Specialisation in Animals 1.1.6 Cell Specialisation in Animals 2 1.1.7 Cell Specialisation in Plants 1.1.8 Microscopy 1.1.9 Microscopy 2 1.1.10 Culturing Microorganisms 1.1.11 Calculating Bacteria Apply it! - 1.1 What’s in cells Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 1.2 Cell Division 1.2.1 Chromosomes & Mitosis 1.2.2 Stem Cells Apply it! - 1.2 Cell Division Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 1.3 Transport in Cells 1.3.1 Diffusion 1.3.2 Exchange Surfaces 1.3.3 Osmosis 1.3.4 Active Transport Apply it! - 1.3 Transport in Cells Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 2 Worle Science department  TRIPLE SCIENCE REVISION TRACKER ​ HIGHER Review point RAG 2 Organisation 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Notes R R A A G Speak to teacher 2.1 Principles of Organisation 2.1.1 Cells, Tissues & Organs 2.1.2 Organs Sys & Organisation Apply it! - 2.1 Principles of Organisation Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 2.2 Enzymes 2.2.1 Enzymes 2.2.2 Rate of Reaction 2.2.3 Digestion 2.2.4 Examples of digestive enzyme 2.2.5 Testing for biological molecules Apply it! - 2.2 Enzymes Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 2.3 Circulatory System 2.3.1 Blood Vessels 2.3.2 Blood Vessels 2 2.3.3 The Heart 2.3.4 Circulatory system & Gas exchange 2.3.5 Blood 2.3.6 Blood Cells Apply it! - 2.3 Circulatory System Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 3 Worle Science department  TRIPLE SCIENCE REVISION TRACKER ​ HIGHER 2.4 Non-Communicable Diseases 2.4.1 Non Communicable Diseases 2.4.2 Risk Factors 2.4.3 Heart Diseases 2.4.4 Treating Heart Disease 2.4.5 Cancer Apply it! - 2.4 Non communicable Diseases Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 2.5 Plant Tissues, Organs & Systems 2.5.1 Plant Tissues 2.5.2 Transpiration 2.5.3 Translocation 2.5.4 Transpiration Tissues 2.5.5 Stomata Apply it! - 2.5 Plant tissues, Organs & Syst Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 4 Worle Science department  TRIPLE SCIENCE REVISION TRACKER ​ HIGHER Review point RAG 3 Infection & Response 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Notes R R A A G Speak to teacher 3.1 Communicable Diseases 3.1.1 Spreading disease 3.1.2 Viruses 3.1.3 Other Pathogens 3.1.4 Human Defence systems 3.1.5 Human Defence systems 2 3.1.6 Antibiotics 3.1.7 Drug Development 3.1.8 Drugs Testing Apply it! - 3.1 Communicable diseases Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 3.2 Monoclonal Antibodies 3.2.1 Prod. & Using Monoclonal Antibodies Apply it! - 3.2 Monoclonal antibodies Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 3.3 Plant Diseases 3.3.1 Diseases & Defence 3.3.2 Identifying Disease Apply it! - 3.3 Plant Diseases Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 5 Worle Science department  TRIPLE SCIENCE REVISION TRACKER ​ HIGHER Review point RAG 4 Bioenergetics 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Notes R R A A G Speak to teacher 4.1 Photosynthesis 4.1.1 Photosynthesis 4.1.2 Photosynthesis 2 4.1.3 Photosynthesis Experiments Apply it! - 4.1 Photosynthesis Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 4.2 Respiration 4.2.1 Respiration 4.2.2 Exercise Apply it! - 4.2 Respiration Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 6 Worle Science department  TRIPLE SCIENCE REVISION TRACKER ​ HIGHER Review point RAG 5 Homeostasis & Response 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Notes R R A A G Speak to teacher 5.1 Homeostasis 5.1.1 Homeostasis 5.1.2 Homeostasis 2 Apply it! - 5.1 Homeostasis Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 5.2 The Human Nervous System 5.2.1 The Nervous System 5.2.2 Synapses 5.2.3 Reflexes 5.2.4 The Brain 5.2.5 Eye Anatomy 5.2.6 Eye Function 5.2.7 Control of Body Temperature 5.2.8 Warming Up & Cooling Down 5.2.9 Body Temperature HyperLearning Apply it! - 5.2 The Human Nervous System Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 5.3 Hormonal Coordination in Humans 5.3.1 Endocrine System 5.3.2 Endocrine System 2 5.3.3 Blood Glucose 5.3.4 Diabetes 5.3.5 Control of Water Balance 5.3.6 Urine 5.3.7 Dialysis 5.3.8 Transplants 5.3.9 Puberty 5.3.10 Menstruation 7 Worle Science department  TRIPLE SCIENCE REVISION TRACKER ​ HIGHER 5.3.11 Contraception 5.3.12 Contraception 2 5.3.13 Hormones for Infertility Apply it! - 5.3 Hormonal Coordination in Hu. Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 5.4 Plant Hormones 5.4.1 Plant Hormones 5.4.2 Plant Hormones 2 Apply it! - 5.4 Plant Hormones Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 8 Worle Science department  TRIPLE SCIENCE REVISION TRACKER ​ HIGHER 6 Inheritance, Variation & Review point RAG Evolution 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Notes R R A A G Speak to teacher 6.1 Reproduction 6.1.1 Reproduction 6.1.2 Reproduction 2 6.1.3 Genome 6.1.4 DNA 6.1.5 Protein Synthesis 6.1.6 Genetic Inheritance 6.1.7 Genetic Crosses 6.1.8 Inherited Disorders 6.1.9 Inherited Disorders 2 6.1.10 Genome Screening & Sex Determination Apply it! - 6.1 Reproduction Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 6.2 Variation & Evolution 6.2.1 Variation & Evolution 6.2.2 Selective Breeding 6.2.3 Selective Breeding 2 6.2.4 Genetic Engineering 6.2.5 Uses of Genetic Modification 6.2.6 Cloning 6.2.7 Cloning 2 Apply it! - 6.2 Variation & Evolution Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 9 Worle Science department  TRIPLE SCIENCE REVISION TRACKER ​ HIGHER 6.3 Genetics & Evolution 6.3.1 Natural Selection 6.3.2 Speciation 6.3.3 Evidence for Evolution 6.3.4 Genetics & Extinction Apply it! - 6.3 Genetics & Evolution Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 6.4 Classification 6.4.1 Classification of Living Organisms 6.4.2 Classification of Living Organisms 2 Apply it! - 6.4 Classification Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Review point RAG 7 Ecology 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Notes R R A A G Speak to teacher 7.1 Adaptations & Interdependence 7.1.1 Communities 7.1.2 Communities 2 Apply it! - 7.1 Adaptations & Interdepend Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 7.2 Organisation of Ecosystems 7.2.1 Population Dynamics 7.2.2 Environmental Change 7.2.3 Assessing Ecosystems 7.2.4 The Cycling of Materials 7.2.5 Decay 7.2.6 Decay Practical Apply it! - 7.2 Organisation of Ecosystems Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 10 Worle Science department  TRIPLE SCIENCE REVISION TRACKER ​ HIGHER 7.3 Biodiversity 7.3.1 Human Interactions with Ecosystems 7.3.2 Human interactions with Ecosystems 2 7.3.3 Greenhouse Gases 7.3.4 Greenhouse Gases 2 Apply it! - 7.3 Biodiversity Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 7.4 Trophic Levels 7.4.1 Trophic Levels 7.4.2 Trophic Levels 2 Apply it! - 7.4 Trophic Levels Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 7.5 Food Production 7.5.1 Food Production 7.5.2 Farming & Fishing Apply it! - 7.5 Food Production Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 11 Worle Science department Cell Biology Knowledge Organiser – Separate Science Required Practical Specialised Cells Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Microscopy Required Practical When a cell changes to become a specialised cell, it is called Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles, for example, plant cells, Includes preparing a slide, using a light microscope, differentiation. animal cells and fungus cells. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus, for drawing any observations – use a pencil and label important example, a bacterial cell. observations. Specialised Function Adaptation Animal Cells Plant Cells vacuole Cell ribosomes ribosomes eyepiece cell membrane sperm To get the male Streamlined head, long nucleus cell membrane nucleus DNA to the tail, lots of mitochondria to cell wall female DNA. provide energy. stage stage clips nerve To send electrical Long to cover more distance. mitochondria impulses around Has branched connections to chloroplast the body. connect in a network. mitochondria chloroplasm light focussing muscle To contract Long and contain lots of Plant and animal cells have similarities and differences: wheels quickly. mitochondria for energy. Animal Plant root hair To absorb water A large surface area to absorb from the soil. more water. nucleus e e Osmosis and Potato Practical Independent variable – concentration. phloem Transports Pores to allow cell sap to flow. cytoplasm e e Dependent variable – change in mass. substances Cells are long and joined end- Control variable – volume of solution, temperature, time, around the plant. to-end. chloroplast X e surface area of the potato. xylem Transports water Hollow in the centre. Tubes cell membrane e e The potato in the sugar solution will lose water and so will have through the plant. are joined end-to-end. less mass at the end; the potato in the pure water solution will permanent vacuole X e gain water. Equations and Maths mitochondria e e Equation Culturing Microorganisms in the Lab: Use agar jelly which ribosomes image size e e contains nutrients. The bacteria will form colonies on the agar. ÷ ÷ Use inoculating loops to add the bacteria to the agar jelly. In a cell wall X e school lab the microorganisms are kept at 25oC to prevent the Maths Skills magnification × real size Bacterial Cells growth of any harmful bacteria. Conversions: Bacterial cells do not have a true Investigating the Effect of Antibiotics on Bacterial Growth: Place Micrometres to millimetres: divide by 1000. nucleus, they just have a single strand paper disks that have been soaked with different antibiotics on an Standard Form: 0.003 = 3 × 10-3 of DNA that floats in the cytoplasm. agar plate that has bacteria on it. The antibiotics should diffuse 5.6 x 10 = 0.0056 -5 They contain a plasmid. on to the agar. The most effective antibiotic at killing the bacteria Area (to calculate the area of the inhibition zone around an Prokaryotic cells reproduce by binary will have the largest inhibition zone. Be sure to use a control antibacterial disk): Area = πr2 fission - the cell splits in two. that has sterile water on the disk (to compare to). Leave in an Use a ruler to measure the diameter and then half it to find the incubator for 48 hours at 25oC. radius. Page 1 of 2 visit twinkl.com  Cell Biology Knowledge Organiser - Foundation and Higher Chromosomes and Mitosis Stem Cells Exchange – Humans Key Processes In the nucleus of a human cell there are Embryonic stem cells are undifferentiated Multicellular organisms have a large surface area to volume Diffusion is the spreading out of 23 pairs of chromosomes. Chromosomes cells, they have the potential to turn into any ratio so that all the substances can be exchanged. particles from an area of higher contain a double helix of DNA. Chromosomes kind of cell. Gas exchange: Lungs concentration to an area of lower have a large number of genes. concentration. The alveoli are where gas exchange takes place. Cell membranes are semi-permeable, They have a large surface area, moist lining, thin walls and a only small molecules good blood supply. can get through. Cell Diffusion Adult stem cells are found in the bone Osmosis is the movement of water marrow, they can only turn into some types molecules across a partially of cells e.g. blood cells. permeable membrane from a region The cell cycle makes new cells. of higher concentration to a region Uses of stem cells: Mitosis: DNA has to be copied/replicated of lower concentration. Replacing faulty blood cells; before the cell carries out mitosis. Active transport is the movement making insulin producing cells; of substances against the concentration making nerve cells. gradient. This process requires Villi: Small Intestine energy from respiration. Active Transport in Cells Some people are against stem cell research. Millions of villi line the small intestine increasing the surface Exchange in Fish For Stem Cell Research Against Stem area to absorb more digested food. Fish have a large surface area for gas exchange. These are called Cell Research They are a single layer of cells with a good blood supply. gills. Water enters the fish through the mouth and goes out Curing patients with Embryos are Key Vocabularly stem cells - more human life. Exchange in Plants through the gills. The oxygen is transported from the water to active transport the blood by diffusion. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood important than the alveoli to the water. Each gill has gill filaments which give the gills a rights of embryos. chromosome large surface area. Lamellae cover each gill filament to further They are just using Scientists diffusion increase the surface area for more gas exchange. They have a unwanted embryos from should find eukaryotic thin surface layer and capillaries for good blood supply which fertility clinics, which other sources gas exchange helps with diffusion. would normally be of stem cells. mitosis destroyed. multicellular Stem Cells in Plants oxygen CO2 osmosis prokaryotic In plants, stem cells are found in the meristem. The surface of the leaf is flattened to increase the surface area undifferentiated These stem cells are able to produce clones for more gas exchange by diffusion. replicated of the plant. They can be used to grow crops Oxygen and water vapour diffuse out of the stomata. Guard specialised with specific features for a farmer, e.g. disease cells open and close the stomata, controlling water loss. villi resistant. Page 2 of 2 visit twinkl.com AQA GCSE Biology (Separate Science) Unit 2: Organisation Principles of Organisation 6. Add 2cm3 of starch solution into the test tube, using a different measuring cylinder to measure, and begin a timer (leave the timer to run continuously). 7. After 10 seconds, use a pipette to extract some of the amylase/starch solution, and place one drop into the first well of the spotting tile. Squirt the remaining solution back into the test tube. 8. Continue to place one drop into the next well of the spotting tile, every 10 cell tissue organ organ system organism seconds, until the iodine remains orange. 9. Record the time taken for the starch to be completely digested by the amylase Cells are the basic A group of cells with An organ is a Organs work together Organ systems work by counting the wells that were tested positive for starch (indicated by the building blocks of all a similar structure combination of tissues within an organ together to form whole blue/black colour change of the iodine). Each well represents 10 seconds of living things. and function is called carrying out a specific system. living organisms. time. a tissue. function. 10. Repeat steps 1 to 8 for pH values 7 and 10. Food Tests (Required Practical) Effect of pH on the Rate of Reaction of Amylase (Required Practical) The Digestive System Iodine is used to test for the presence of starch. What Which What does a The purpose of the digestive system is to break down large molecules into smaller, If starch is present, the colour will change to are you indicator positive result soluble molecules, which are then absorbed into the bloodstream. The rate of these blue-black. testing do you look like? reactions is increased by enzymes. The independent variable in the investigation for? use? is the pH of the buffer solution. sugar Benedict’s Once heated, the The dependent variable in the investigation is the time reagent solution will change taken for the reaction to complete (how long it takes for all from blue-green to the starch to be digested by the amylase). yellow-red. Method: 1. Use the marker pen to label a test tube with the first value of pH buffer starch iodine Blue-black colour solution (pH 4) and stand it in the test tube rack. indicates starch is present. 2. Into each well of the spotting tiles, place a drop of iodine. 3. Using a measuring cylinder, measure 2cm3 of amylase and pour into the protein biuret The solution will test tube. change from blue to pink-purple. 4. Using a syringe, measure 1cm3 of the buffer solution and pour into the test tube. lipid sudan III The lipids will 5. Leave this to stand for five minutes and then use the thermometer to separate and the measure the temperature. Make a note of the temperature. top layer will turn bright red. Page 1 of 6 visit twinkl.com AQA GCSE Biology (Separate Science) Unit 2: Organisation Enzymes The Heart and Blood Vessels The Heart as a Double Pump An enzyme is a biological catalyst; enzymes speed up The heart is a large muscular organ which pumps blood carrying oxygen The heart works as a double pump for two circulatory chemical reactions without or waste products around the body. The lungs are the site of gas exchange systems; the pulmonary circulation and the systemic being changed or used up. where oxygen from the air is exchanged for waste carbon dioxide in the circulation. This happens because the enzyme lowers the activation blood. Oxygen is used in the respiration reaction to release energy for the The pulmonary circulation serves the energy required for the reaction to occur. Enzymes are made cells and carbon dioxide is made as a waste product during the reaction. lungs and bring deoxygenated blood to up of chains of amino acids folded into a globular shape. glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + [energy] exchange waste carbon dioxide gas for oxygen at the alveoli. Enzymes have an active site which the substrate (reactants) The systemic circulation serves the rest of the body fits into. Enzymes are very specific and will only catalyse one and transports oxygen and nutrients from digestion specific reaction. If the reactants are not the complimentary to the cells of the body, whilst carrying carbon shape, the enzyme will not work for that reaction. dioxide and other waste away from the cells. Enzymes also work optimally at specific conditions of pH and The systemic circulation flows through the whole temperature. In extremes of pH or temperature, the enzyme vein artery capillary body. This means the blood is flowing at a much higher pressure than in the will denature. This means that the bonds holding together pulmonary circuit. The three types of blood vessels, shown above, are each adapted to carry the 3D shape of the active site will break and the active out their specific function. shape will deform. The substrate will not be able to fit into The Heart as Pacemaker Capillaries are narrow vessels which form networks to closely supply cells the active site anymore and the enzyme cannot function. and organs between the veins and arteries. The walls of the capillaries are The rate of the heart beating is very carefully, only one cell thick, which provides a short diffusion pathway to increase and automatically, controlled within Enzyme Reactant Product the heart itself. the rate at which substances are transferred. amylase starch sugars (glucose) Located in the muscular walls of The table below compares the structure and function of arteries and veins: the heart are small groups of protease protein amino acids cells which act as pacemakers. Artery Vein lipase lipid glycerol and fatty acids They produce electrical impulses direction of blood flow away from the heart towards the heart which stimulate the surrounding The products of digestion are used to build new oxygenated or oxygenated (except deoxygenated muscle to contract, squeezing the deoxygenated blood? the pulmonary (except the chambers of the heart and pumping carbohydrates and proteins and some of the glucose is used artery) pulmonary vein) the blood. for respiration. pressure high low (negative) Bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. The sino-atrial node (SAN) is located near the It is an alkaline substance which neutralises the wall structure thick, elastic, thin, less right atrium and it stimulates the atria to contract. hydrochloric acid in the stomach. It also works to emulsify muscular, connective muscular, less The atrio-ventricular node (AVN) is located in between the ventricles and fats into small droplets. The fat droplets have a higher tissue for strength connective tissue stimulates them to contract. surface area and so the rate of their digestion by lipase is lumen (channel inside narrow wide (with valves) increased. the vessel) Page 2 of 6 visit twinkl.com AQA GCSE Biology (Separate Science) Unit 2: Organisation Artificial pacemakers can be surgically implanted into a person if their Drugs – illegal drugs (e.g. ecstasy and cannabis) can lead to increased heart rate heart nodes are not functioning correctly. and blood pressure, increasing the risk of heart disease. Alcohol – regularly exceeding unit guidelines for alcohol can lead to increased blood pressure and risk of heart disease. Coronary Heart Disease The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood via the vena Coronary heart disease is a condition resulting from blockages in the cava. It is then pumped down through the valves coronary arteries. These are the main arteries which supply blood to the into the right ventricle. From here, it is forced up heart itself and they can become blocked by build-up of fatty deposits. through the pulmonary artery towards the lungs where it exchanges carbon dioxide for oxygen. In the UK and around the world, coronary heart disease is a major cause The oxygenated blood then enters the left atrium via the of many deaths. Blood pulmonary vein and down into the left ventricle. The The main symptoms can include chest pain, heart attack or heart failure. Blood is composed of red blood cells muscular wall of the left ventricle is much thicker so it can Yet, not all people suffer the same symptoms, if any at all. (erythrocytes), white blood cells and platelets, all pump the blood more forcefully out of the heart and around Lifestyle factors can increase the risk of a person developing coronary suspended within a plasma (a tissue). the entire body, via the aorta. heart disease. The plasma transports the different blood cells The blood only flows in one direction. This is because there around the body as well as carbon dioxide, are valves in the heart which close under pressure and Diet – a high-fat diet (containing lots of saturated fat) can lead to higher nutrients, urea and hormones. It also distributes prevent the backward flow of blood. cholesterol levels and this cholesterol forms the fatty deposits which the heat throughout the body. damage and block the arteries. Red blood cells transport oxygen attached to the Smoking – chemicals in cigarette smoke, including nicotine and carbon monoxide, increase the risk of heart disease. Carbon monoxide reduces haem group in their structure. It has a biconcave shape to increase surface area the amount of oxygen which can be transported by the red blood cells and does not contain a nucleus so it can bind with more oxygen molecules. and nicotine causes an increased heart rate. The lack of oxygen to the White blood cells form part of the immune system and ingest pathogens heart and increased pressure can lead to heart attacks. and produce antibodies. Platelets are important blood clotting factors. Stress – prolonged exposure to stress or stressful situations (such as high at the lungs pressure jobs) can lead to high blood pressure and an increased risk of haemoglobin + oxygen oxyhaemoglobin heart disease. at the cells Page 3 of 6 visit twinkl.com AQA GCSE Biology (Separate Science) Unit 2: Organisation Rate Calculations for Blood Flow Plant Tissues, Organs and Systems Root Hair Cells The number of beats the heart performs each minute is called the Leaves are plant organs and their main function is to absorb sunlight Plants absorb water by osmosis through pulse (or heart rate). energy for use in photosynthesis. Within the cells are small organelles called the root hair cells of the roots. Dissolved It is easily measured by counting the number of beats in a given time, chloroplasts which contain a green pigment called chlorophyll. This is the in the water are important minerals for e.g. 15s, and finding the total beats per minute. part of the plant which absorbs the sunlight and where photosynthesis occurs. the plant’s growth and development, sunlight which are absorbed by active transport. Typically, a lower resting pulse rate indicates a greater level of physical fitness. During exercise, and for some time after, the pulse carbon dioxide + water oxygen + glucose The root hair cells are adapted to their rate increases while the heart is working to provide more oxygen to function with the following features: Leaves are adapted to carry out their function. Leaves are typically flat and the muscles. Finger-like projection in the membrane increases the surface thin with a large surface area. This means they have a maximum area to absorb the sunlight and carbon dioxide. The thin shape reduces the distance area available for water and minerals to be absorbed across. Cardiac output is a measure of the volume of blood pumped by the heart each minute. Stroke volume is a measure of the volume of for diffusion of water and gases. The narrow shape of the projection can squeeze into small blood pumped from the heart each contraction (heart beat). spaces between soil particles, bringing it closer and reducing Leaves contain vessels called xylem and phloem. The xylem transport water the distance of the diffusion pathway. Cardiac output (cm³/min) = heart rate (bpm) × stroke volume (cm³/beat) and dissolved minerals toward the leaves. The phloem transport glucose and The cell has many mitochondria, which release energy required other products from photosynthesis around the plant. Cancer for the active transport of some substances. The large air spaces between the cells of the spongy mesophyll layer allow Cancer is the result of uncontrolled cell growth and division. for the diffusion of gases. Carbon dioxide enters the leaves and oxygen exits The uncontrolled growth of cells is called a tumour. Xylem and Phloem the leaves. Benign Tumour Malignant Tumour Xylem vessels transport water through waxy cuticle palisade layer Usually grows slowly. cancerous the plant, from roots to leaves. They are made up of dead, lignified Usually grows within Usually grows rapidly. a membrane and can cells, which are joined end to end Can spread around upper epidermis be easily removed. xylem with no walls between them, forming the body, via the a long central tube down the middle. bloodstream. Does not normally grow back. The movement of the water, and Cells can break away and spongy mesophyll lower epidermis dissolved minerals, along the xylem is Does not spread around the body. cause secondary tumours to grow in other areas of in a transpiration stream. Can cause damage to organs the body (metastasis). Xylem vessels also provide support and strength to the plant and be life-threatening. guard cells stomata structure. They are found in the middle of roots so they aren’t crushed within the soil. They are found in the middle The guard cells are specially adapted cells located on the underside of the leaf. of the stem to provide strength and prevent bending. In the They are positioned in pairs, surrounding the stomata (a small opening in the leaves, they are found in vascular bundles alongside the epidermis layer). The guard cells change shape to open and close the stomata, phloem and can be seen as the veins which network across controlling the rate of gas exchange in the leaf. the leaf. Page 4 of 6 visit twinkl.com AQA GCSE Biology (Separate Science) Unit 2: Organisation Phloem vessels transport food such as Disease Interactions Health and Disease dissolved sugars and glucose from photosynthesis. The food is transported Having one type of illness can often make a person more susceptible to Health is the state of being free from illness or disease. It around the plant to where growth is occurring another type of illness: refers to physical and mental wellbeing. (root and shoot tips), as well as to the organs Disease and lifestyle factors, such as diet, stress, smoking, immune disorders increased risk of infectious disease which store the food. The transport occurs alcohol consumption and the use of illegal drugs, can all in all directions throughout the plant. viral infection of cells increased risk of cancer impact the health of a person. The cells making up the phloem tube are Some conditions are associated with certain lifestyle choices: immune reactions can trigger allergies living, with small holes in the walls where the Liver conditions are associated with poor diet and prolonged cells are joined. very poor physical health increased risk of depression or other mental excessive alcohol consumption. illness Transpiration and Translocation Lung cancer is associated with smoking. Memory loss, poor physical health and hygiene are Transpiration is the loss of water, by evaporation and diffusion, associated with the use of illegal or recreational drugs. from the leaves of the plant. Water is a cohesive molecule and as it evaporates, Obesity and diabetes are associated with poor diet. there is less water in the leaf, so water from further back moves up to take its place. This, in turn, draws more water with it. This is the transpiration Anxiety and depression are associated with stress and stream. prolonged excessive alcohol consumption. Transpiration occurs naturally as there is a tendency for water to diffuse There can often be correlations between some factors from the leaves (where the concentration is relatively high) to the air around and types of illness or specific diseases. the plants (where the concentration is relatively low), via the stomata. For example, in the graph shown to the right, there is a Environmental factors can change the rate at which transpiration occurs: positive correlation between the number of cigarettes Increased light intensity will increase the rate of transpiration because light smoked and the number of lung cancer deaths. stimulates the stomata to open. The leaf will also be warmed by the sunlight. Increased temperature will cause the water to evaporate more quickly and However, there are other factors which can contribute so increase the rate of transpiration. to the development of lung cancer e.g. working with asbestos, genetic predisposition. Increased humidity (moisture in the air) will reduce the rate of transpiration. Whereas if the air becomes drier, the rate increases. This means that although the evidence in the graph A greater concentration gradient will increase the rate of diffusion. gives a strong indication that smoking is a cause of If the wind speed increases, then the rate of transpiration also increases. lung cancer, it cannot be stated that ‘smoking will This is because as the water surrounding the leaves is moved away more cause lung cancer’. Not every person who smokes quickly, the concentration gradient is increased. will develop lung cancer and not every person who If the water content in the soil is decreased, then the rate of absorption in develops lung cancer will be a smoker. the roots decreases. This causes the stomata to become flaccid and close, Therefore, it can be stated that smoking increases the reducing transpiration. If the loss of turgor affects the whole plant, then it risk of lung cancer. will wilt. Page 5 of 6 visit twinkl.com AQA GCSE Biology (Separate Science) Unit 2: Organisation Heart Disease (Treatments) There are a range of medical treatments for heart disease. Treatment Description Advantages Disadvantages statins Drugs used to lower cholesterol levels in the blood, Can be used to prevent heart disease developing. Long-term treatment. by reducing the amount produced in the liver. Possible negative side-effects. Improved quality of life. stents Mechanical device which is used to stretch narrow or Used for patients where drugs are less effective. Requires surgery under general anaesthetic, which blocked arteries, restoring blood flow. carries risk of infection. Offers long-term benefits. Made from metal alloys so will not be rejected by the patients body. Improved quality of life. heart transplant The entire organ is replaced with one from an organ Can treat complete heart failure in a person. Requires major surgery under general anaesthetic, donor (a person who has died and previously expressed which carries risks. extended life a wish for their organs to be used in this way). Lack of donors available. Improved quality of life. Risk of infection or transplant rejection. Artificial plastic hearts can be used temporarily until a donor is found. Long recovery times. Page 6 of 6 visit twinkl.com Infection and Response Knowledge Organiser – Foundation and Higher Communicable Disease Viral Diseases Bacterial Diseases Pathogens are microorganisms that enter the body and Measles is spread by droplets of liquid from sneezes and Salmonella bacteria causes food poisoning. Symptoms include fever, cause communicable disease (infectious). Plants and coughs etc. Symptoms include a red rash on the skin and a stomach cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea. The symptoms are caused animals can be infected by them. fever. Measles can be serious or even fatal and it can lead by the toxins produced by the bacteria. Food contaminated with to pneumonia. Most people are vaccinated against measles salmonella can give you food poisoning. Most poultry in the UK will Bacteria are small cells that can when they are very young. have had a vaccination against salmonella. reproduce very quickly in the body. They produce toxins that make you HIV is spread by sexual contact or exchanging body fluids. feel ill, damaging your cells and HIV can be controlled be antiviral drugs; this stops the Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmitted bacterial disease, passed on by tissues. viruses replicating. The virus attacks the cells in the sexual contact. Symptoms include pain when urinating and thick immune system. If the immune system is badly damaged, yellow/green discharge from the vagina or penis. To prevent the spread, Viruses are much smaller than the body cannot cope with other infections. This is the late people should be treated with antibiotics and use a condom. bacteria; they can also reproduce stage and is called Aids. quickly in the body. Viruses live inside your cells where they replicate. They Tobacco mosaic virus affects plants. Parts of the leaves How to prevent the spread: then burst out of the cell, releasing become discoloured. This means plants cannot carry out Being hygienic – new viruses. photosynthesis; this will affect the plants growth. washing hands thoroughly. Protists are eukaryotes Destroying vectors – (multicellular). Some are parasites killing vectors by using insecticides or destroying their habitat. which live on or inside other Isolation – spore case organisms, often carried by a vector. bursts isolating an infected person will prevent the spread. sporangium Fungi are sometimes single celled, Vaccination – others have hyphae that grow and people cannot develop the infection and then pass it on. stem penetrate human skin and the surface Fungal and Protist Diseases of plants. They can produce spores Fungal which can spread to other plants. Rose black spot shows as black spots on the leaves of the hyphae plant. This means less photosynthesis occurs. As a result, the plant does not grow as well. It is spread by the wind How Pathogens Are Spread or the water. They can be treated by using fungicides and Pathogens can be spread in many ways, for example: taking the leaves off the infected plant. Water – by drinking dirty water, e.g. cholera. Protists Malaria is caused by a protist; mosquitoes are the vectors. Air – carried by air and breathed in, e.g. influenza. They become infected when they feed on an infected Direct contact – touching contaminated surfaces animal. The protist is inserted into the blood vessel. including the skin, e.g. athlete's foot. Malaria can cause fever and it can also be fatal. Page 1 of 3 visit twinkl.com Infection and Response Knowledge Organiser – Foundation and Higher Plant Diseases and Defences The Immune System Fighting Disease – Drugs Plants need ions from the soil. If there isn’t enough, then This kills any pathogens that enter the body. Painkillers relive the pain and the plants suffer deficiency symptoms. symptoms, but do not tackle White blood cells: the cause. Ion Symptoms Phagocytosis is when white blood cells engulf pathogens and then digest them. nitrates stunted growth Antibiotics kill the bacteria They produce antitoxins to neutralise the toxins. causing the problem, but do magnesium yellow leaves They also produce antibodies. Pathogens have antigens on not work on viruses. Viruses their surface. Antibodies produced by the white blood cells are very difficult to kill because Plant Diseases – common signs include stunted lock on to the antigen on the outside of the pathogen. White they live inside the body cells. growth, spots on the leaves, patches of decay, blood cells can then destroy the pathogens. abnormal growth, malformed stems or leaves and Antibodies are specific to one antigen discolouration. and will only work on that pathogen. Developing Drugs Plants have physical, chemical and mechanical There are three main stages in drug testing: defences to stop pathogens. Pre-clinical testing: 1. Drugs are tested on human cells and tissues. Physical – waxy cuticle, cell walls, layer of dead Vaccinations 2. Testing carried out on living animals. cells. Vaccinations have been developed to protect us from future Clinical testing: Mechanical – thorns, hairs, leaves that droop or curl infections. A vaccination involves an injection of a dead or weakened version of the pathogen. They carry antigens which cause your 3. Tested on healthy human volunteers in clinical trials. Starts with and some plants can mimic other organisms. body to produce antibodies which will attack the pathogen. If you a very low dose, then tested on people with the illness to find the are infected again, the white blood cells can produce antibodies optimum dose. Fighting Diseases quickly. Placebo is a substance that is like the drug but does not do anything. Defence System Placebo effect is when the patient thinks the treatment will work 1. The skin acts as a barrier to pathogens. even though their treatment isn’t doing anything. 2. Hairs and mucus in your nose trap particles. Blind trial is when the patient does not know whether they are Pros Cons 3. The trachea and bronchi secrete mucus to trap getting the drug or the placebo. pathogens. They also have cilia which move Helps to control They don’t always work. Double-blind trial is when both the doctor and the patient do not backwards and forwards to transport the mucus communicable know whether they are getting the drug. towards the throat. This traps any pathogens diseases that used to and the mucus is usually swallowed. be very common. 4. The stomach contains hydrochloric acid to Epidemics can be Some people can have a kill any pathogens that enter the body via the prevented. bad reaction to a vaccine – mouth. however, that is very rare. Page 2 of 3 visit twinkl.com Infection and Response Knowledge Organiser – Foundation and Higher Drugs from Plants Monoclonal Antibodies Research to find specific substances: used to bind to hormones Chemicals produced by plants to defend themselves can be Monoclonal antibodies are identical antibodies. Antibodies are and chemicals in the blood to measure levels. Also used in used to treat human diseases or help with symptoms. produced by B lymphocytes. blood tests for pathogens and locating molecules on a cell or in tissue. Drug Plant/Microorganism It is possible to fuse a B lymphocyte from a mouse with a tumour cell to create a cell called a hybridoma - these can Problems: they have more side-effects than originally thought. aspirin willow be cloned. They will all produce the same antibodies; the For example: fever, vomiting, low blood pressure. They are not antibodies can be collected and purified. used by doctors as much as was first thought. digitalis foxglove antigen antibody- isolate tumor forming cells immunization immune cells penicillin mould - penicillium cells fusion New drugs are now made by chemists, who work for the pharmaceutical industry, in laboratories. hybridomas hybridomas screened clonal for production of monoclonal expansion desired antibody antibodies antibody-producing hydromas cloned There are many uses of monoclonal antibodies. For example: Key Vocabulary microorganism Pregnancy testing: HCG hormone is found in the urine of antibodies women when pregnant. Pregnancy testing sticks detect this antigens phagocytosis hormone. The HGC binds to the antibodies on the stick and antitoxins placebo changes the colour if you are pregnant. If the woman is not bacteria protist pregnant, there is no HCG. This means there is nothing to stick blind trial toxins to the blue beads on the test strip, so it does not go blue. double-blind vaccination Treating diseases: anti-cancer drugs can be attached to fungus vector monoclonal antibodies. They can target specific cells (cancer virus cells) by binding to the cancer marker. This kills the cancer cells, but not the normal body cells. Page 3 of 3 visit twinkl.com AQA GCSE Biology (Separate Science) Unit 5: Homeostasis and Response Homeostasis Synapses The Human Nervous System Homeostasis is the regulation of a constant A synapse is the gap where the ends of two neurons meet. The nervous system allows a fast, short-lived response to a stimulus in the surroundings. The information is internal environment. The conditions are received by a receptor, passed along the neurons (nerve cells) as an electrical impulse and results in a response. maintained to ensure optimum conditions You might have to label the parts of a typical neuron: for metabolism and changes in response to both internal and external fluctuations. In humans, homeostasis regulates the myelin sheath dendrites blood glucose (sugar) levels, the body The information needs to be passed from one neuron to the temperature, CO₂ levels and water levels. next, but cannot be passed as an electrical impulse over the cell body The levels are monitored and regulated by synapse (gap). Instead, the message is transmitted by chemical axon terminal neurotransmitters. nucleus automatic control systems which can be axon either nervous responses (coordinated by When the electrical impulse arrives at the terminal of the first the nervous system) or chemical responses neuron, it causes a release of neurotransmitter chemicals into (coordinated by the endocrine system). the synapse. They travel across the gap and bind to receptor Information about the environment is sites on the terminal of the next neuron. called a stimulus and is detected by a The axon is the main part of the nerve cell. It is a long, stretched-out fibre of cytoplasm which the electrical receptor. The information is processed The receptor sites are specific for each type of neurotransmitter. impulse will travel along. by a central coordination system and a A nerve impulse will only be created in the second neuron when Some axons are surrounded in a layer of fatty cells called the myelin sheath and it helps to insulate the response is initiated by an effector. a complimentary chemical binds. electrical impulse. The Nervous Pathway The branched endings, dendrites, connect the neurons together to create a network. A stimulus is a change in the environment (internally or externally). In a typical response to stimuli, this information is received by the receptor and sent as an electrical impulse along a sensory neuron towards sensory neuron relay neuron motor neuron the central nervous system (CNS). The CNS is comprised of the brain and spinal cord. Here, the impulse is passed through relay neurons and a response to the stimulus is coordinated. This could be consciously or subconsciously. The CNS sends information about the response along a motor neuron as an electrical impulse. The effector receives the impulse and carries out the response. [stimulus] receptor sensory neuron CNS motor neuron effector [response] Examples of receptors include rod and cone cells within the eye which respond to light and allow us to see. Or it could be the cells in the skin which respond to pressure or temperature changes allowing us to feel. An effector could be a muscle or a gland. In response, a muscle might contract to make a movement or a gland releases a chemical into the body. Page 1 of 12 visit twinkl.com AQA GCSE Biology (Separate Science) Unit 5: Homeostasis and Response The Endocrine System A reflex arc begins with the stimulus e.g. a bee sting or a hot object on Diabetes the skin. The stimulus is detected by the receptor cells and an electrical You should be able to identify the major glands of the endocrine system, impulse is transmitted along the sensory neuron. The impulse is passed There are two types of diabetes: type 1 and type 2. as shown below. through relay neurons in the spinal cord or the unconscious areas of Type 1 diabetes is a disorder affecting the pancreas. In type 1 diabetes, the brain. The response is coordinated automatically and sent along the the pancreas does not produce enough insulin to control the blood motor neuron to the effector cells. sugar level and so the levels become higher than normal. Type 1 Hormones diabetes is usually treated by injections of insulin. Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream to an Type 2 diabetes is a disorder of effector cells which no longer respond effector where they can activate a response. They are produced and released to the hormones released from the pancreas. Type 2 diabetes can from glands around the body which all make up the endocrine system. usually be managed through lifestyle choices such as maintaining a Hormones do a similar job to the neurons of the nervous system but there carbohydrate-controlled diet and regular exercise. are some differences. neurons hormones speed fast slow duration short long target area specific general The hormones released travel in the blood plasma to their target cells and affect only those certain cells. Hormones act on organs or cells where constant adjustments are made to maintain a stable state. The risk of developing type 2 diabetes is higher in people who are obese (have a BMI >30). Some examples you should know: Reflexes Hormones in Human Reproduction The pituitary gland produces a range of hormones including FSH and A reflex is a fast and automatic LH which help to regulate the menstrual cycle. The pituitary gland acts Oestrogen is the main reproductive hormone in females. It is produced response to a particular as a master gland because many of the hormones it releases control and in the ovaries. During puberty, this hormone increases and it stimulates stimulus which may be coordinate the release of other hormones from other glands in the body. an egg to be released from an ovary each month. This process is called harmful to the organism. ovulation and happens, on average, every 28 days. They are quick because there is Testosterone is the main reproductive hormone in males. It is produced no conscious thought or process in the testes. This hormone stimulates the production of sperm. to deliver the response (they are an involuntary action). The pathway which carries the information about a reflex action is called a reflex arc. Page 2 of 12 visit twinkl.com AQA GCSE Biology (Separate Science) Unit 5: Homeostasis and Response Control of Blood Glucose The pancreas is the organ and gland which monitors and regulates the blood glucose concentration. (HT only) If the blood glucose concentration becomes too low, a negative feedback loop is triggered and the pancreas releases another hormone, glucagon, which acts on the liver and muscles to cause the stored glycogen to be converted back into glucose and released into the bloodstream. The Menstrual Cycle The menstrual cycle occurs in females, approximately every 28 days. It is a cyclical process of the building Hormone Where It Is Response Caused Interaction with Other Hormones of the lining of the uterus and ovulation. If the egg become fertilised by a sperm, then pregnancy follows. Produced (HT only) If the egg is not fertilised, then the lining of the uterus is shed away and leaves the body as the menstruation (or period). FSH pituitary gland An egg to develop in Stimulates the production of oestrogen. one of the ovaries. The whole cycle is controlled by four main reproductive hormones: oestrogen ovaries The lining of the Stimulates the production of LH. follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) uterus builds up and Inhibits the production of FSH. thickens. oestrogen LH pituitary gland Ovulation (at around Indirectly stimulates the production of luteinising hormone (LH) day 14 of the cycle). progesterone. progesterone progesterone ovaries The uterus lining to Inhibits the production of LH. maintain. Page 3 of 12 visit twinkl.com AQA GCSE Biology (Separate Science) Unit 5: Homeostasis and Response Contraception There are many different types of contraceptive (or birth control) methods. They are categorised as hormonal methods and non-hormonal methods. Method Hormonal or Non-Hormonal How It Works Pros and Cons oral contraceptives hormonal Pill taken which contains hormones to inhibit FSH so that an egg Easily self-administered. Short-term effects. Can easily be reversed. Very reliable. (‘the pill’) does not mature. May have mild side-effects associated. Could lead to pregnancy if missed. Does not protect from STIs. injection, implant or hormonal Contains progesterone which is slowly released to inhibit the release Administered through routine appointment at GP surgery. Requires little to no skin patch of eggs for months or even years. aftercare or maintenance. Very reliable. May take some time for effects to be reversed once removed. Does not protect from STIs. condoms or diaphragm non-hormonal Creates a physical barrier to prevent the sperm from reaching the Easy to use. Short-term effects. Very reliable. Provides protection from most STIs. (female condom) egg. Can fail. intrauterine devices hormonal The device is attached to the lining of the uterus and releases Requires little to no aftercare or maintenance. Very reliable. (coil) hormones or prevents the implantation of an embryo. May take some time for effects to be reversed once removed. Does not protect from STIs. spermicidal agents non-hormonal Contains chemicals to kill or immobilise sperm cells. Easy to use. Short-term effects. Does not protect from STIs. Less effective when used as the only method. abstaining from non-hormonal Avoiding sexual intercourse when there is a likelihood of an egg being inexpensive intercourse (around present in the oviduct.