Biology Notes - Recombinant DNA & Geological Time Scale PDF

BIOLOGY NOTES  It is a record that depicts the history of the earth RECOMBINANT DNA THE SCOPE GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE  It is an artificially made DNA strand that is formed by...

BIOLOGY NOTES  It is a record that depicts the history of the earth RECOMBINANT DNA THE SCOPE GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE  It is an artificially made DNA strand that is formed by  Divided into several sections namely: the combination of two or more gene sequences. 1. EONS- the largest first section  Combining genetic material from different organisms -the longest time span in GTS GENETIC ENGINEERING -also known as EONTHEMS  Deals with the technique of IDENTIFYING, and 2. ERAS- when eons are divided MANIPULATING and TRANSFERRING specific 3. PERIODS- when eras are divided genes. 4. EPOCH- when periods are divided  GMOs are created by introducing recombinant DNA EONS DESCRIPTIONS into an organisms by any means. Hadean Hell on earth IMPORTANT PROCESS OF rDNA Archaean Birth of Earth’s crust ocean and life 1. Isolation of DNA Proterozoic Transition of Abundant life forms  Extraction of DNA of interest from both the donor Phanerozoic Explosion of Life organisms The current eon in GTS 2. Cutting the DNA Restriction Enzymes  RESTRICTION ENZYMES –are also known as TWO IMPORTANT PERIODS IN EARTH’S HISTORY molecular scissors 1. PRECAMBRIAN OR CRYPTOZOIC -generate sticky ends or blunt ends. -consist of Hadean, Archaean, and Proterozoic  Sticky ends- are overhanging sequences of DNA after 2. CAMBRIAN OR PHANEROZOIC being cut by enzymes. -cambrian explosion the sudden increase of diversity of 3. Gene Cloning life.  DNA fragment containing the gene of interest inserted - A dramatic rise in diversity and quantity of complex of into a vector multicellular organisms.  Example of vectors: plasmids, bacteriophages, or viral Cratons are the stable interior of the Earth DNA 4. Ligation  The sticky ends of the fragments and the vector are joined together using and enzyme called DNA LIGASE. 5. Transformation and Transfection  Transformation-the rDNA is introduced into the host nitrogencells (bacteria) while transfection( eukaryotic cells)  ELECTROPORATION-a technique use to deliver DNA to animal cell. Escherichia Coli (E. coli)  A bacteria that is commonly used for producing RNA Mesozoic Era is also known as the Age of Dinosaurs/ PLASMIDS Reptiles.  A circular self-replicating DNA found in bacterial cell Ordovician- the first appearance of plants.  Act as vectors for gene transfer. Quaternary Period is known for the growth and melting of IMPORTANT APPLICATIONS OF DNA continental ice sheets. A. AGRICULTURAL APPLICATIONS 1. Development of Hybridization- crossing parents with different traits. 2. Development of Transgenic Plants- contains foreign genes/developed resistance. 3. Development of root nodules in cereal crops-nitrogen fixation bacteria can be now transferred. 4. Development of C4 plants-improved photosynthetic efficiency B. MEDICINAL APPLICATIONS 1. Antibiotics 2. Insulin 3. Vaccines 4. Enzymes 5. Interferon 6. Gene therapy C. INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS 1. Chemical Compounds improvement 2. Improvement of existing fermentation TWO TYPES OF POLLINATION 1. Self- Pollination- the same flower Note: Mass Extinctions of the dinosaurs happened 2. Cross- Pollination – different flower between the boundary of Cretaceous and Tertiary. Pure-line selection –are the product of self-pollination. Paleozoic Era indicates the appearance of first life in land. GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE  EVOLUTION VESTIGIAL STRUCTURE VOCABULARY  is an anatomical feature or organ that has lost its  BIODIVERSITY- refers to the number and kinds of original function through evolution. These structures organisms in a particular habitat or ecosystem. are remnants of organs or features that were fully  SPECIATION- is the emergence of new species as a functional in ancestral species but have become result of divergence between groups reduced or non-functional over time because they are no longer necessary for survival in the current  Extinction- the disappearance of species environment.  Adaptation- a trait or behaviour that aids the organism’s survival and reproduction. 1.  Species A group of individual organisms with 2. Human Appendix: The appendix is believed to have significant genetic similarities that share external and been part of a digestive system in ancestors that internal characteristics. required more plant material to digest. In modern  Phenotype- refers to the observable characteristics or humans, it no longer serves a significant digestive traits of an organism, which result from the interaction role. of its genetic makeup (genotype) with the 3. Pelvic Bones in Whales: Whales, as marine environment. mammals, have small, vestigial pelvic bones that are  Genotype refers to the genetic constitution of an remnants of their land-dwelling ancestors, where organism — the specific set of genes it carries these bones were used for movement. They no longer  Alleles a variant form of a gene located at a specific have a function in modern whales. position on a chromosome 4. Wings of Flightless Birds (like Ostriches and Kiwis): Flightless birds have wings that are fully formed but are no longer used for flight. These wings EXAMPLES OF ADAPTATION are vestigial structures since they no longer serve their original function. 1. Camouflage in Animals 5. Tailbone (Coccyx) in Humans: The tailbone is a remnant of a tail that existed in the distant  Peppered Moth: In England, the peppered moth evolutionary past. While it serves some minor evolved darker coloring during the Industrial functions today (like providing attachment points for Revolution when pollution darkened the trees. This muscles), it is largely a vestigial structure. helped them avoid predators, as they were less visible against the soot-covered environment. Note: The theory of evolution does not try to explain the origin  Chameleon: Chameleons change color to blend in of life. with their surroundings, providing camouflage from predators and helping with temperature regulation. 2. Beak Shapes in Birds (Darwin’s Finches) MUTATION AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION –are the primary sources of genetic variation  Darwin’s Finches on the Galápagos Islands RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EVOLUTIONS showcase adaptation in beak shape depending on the  Homologous characteristics that have evolved more food source. Birds with larger, stronger beaks are recently are shared only within smaller groups of better at cracking seeds, while those with finer beaks organisms. can feed on insects or flowers.  The genetic code is a homologous characteristic shared by all species because they share a common 3. Desert Plants ancestor in the past.  DNA sequence data would likely support any  Cacti have evolved thick, fleshy stems that store evolutionary tree drawn from anatomical data sets. water, helping them survive in arid environments. They also have spines instead of leaves to reduce DIVERGENT EVOLUTION water loss and deter herbivores.  where related species evolve different traits and adapt to different environments, leading to the EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION development of distinct species.  occurs when two or more species that share a 1. Fossil records common ancestor evolve in different ways, often due 2. Comparative anatomy to differing selective pressures in their environments. A. homologous structures- similar structure or function  EX. Wolves and dogs parts of organisms of different origin based on their descent from common evolutionary ancestor. Convergent evolution B. analogous structure-different structure the same  occurs when organisms from different evolutionary function backgrounds evolve similar traits or behaviors 3. Comparative Embryology because they adapt to similar environments or 4. Genetic data ecological niches. 5. Graphical Data  In this case, both worms and snakes have developed FAMOUS SCIENTISTS AND PHILOSOPHERS legless bodies to move efficiently through their environments, but they are from different lineages. ARISTOTLE Genetic variation  The father of biology  is essential for speciation because it provides the raw  Famous for his Ladder of Nature material for natural selection and other evolutionary CHARLES DARWIN processes to act upon.  Formulated the Natural Selection Theory  The Origin of Species (published his book)  Without variation, populations would not have the JOHN BAPTISTE LAMARCK necessary differences to evolve into separate  Famous for his Law of Use and Disuse species over time  Mutations  introduce new genetic variations by altering the DNA sequence in a gene.  This increased variation provides a broader range of traits within a population, some of which may be advantageous, neutral, or harmful in the given environment. MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION 1. Natural Selection 3. Mutation 2. Genetic Drift 4. Recombination 5. Artificial Selection Note: genetic drift is particularly strong in small populations because the effects of random sampling are more pronounced. Gene flow, on the other hand, would be less relevant in an isolated population because there’s limited interbreeding with other populations. Artificial selection is the process by which humans intentionally breed organisms with desirable traits to produce offspring that exhibit those traits. It is sometimes referred to as "selective breeding" and is a form of non-random mating. GOD BLESS! AND STUDY HARD!