Biology Past Paper PDF - Life Processes, Nutrition, and Respiration

Here is a structured markdown format of the provided text: # ALAKH Sir ke Farrey ## LIFE PROCESSES **LIFE PROCESSES:** Basic and essential functions/processes performed by living organisms to maintain their life.  **Nutrition:** The process of obtaining and utilizing food.  **Respirat...

Here is a structured markdown format of the provided text: # ALAKH Sir ke Farrey ## LIFE PROCESSES **LIFE PROCESSES:** Basic and essential functions/processes performed by living organisms to maintain their life.  **Nutrition:** The process of obtaining and utilizing food.  **Respiration:** The process of breaking down food to obtain energy.  **Transportation:** The process of transfer of substances from one part of the body to other parts.  **Excretion:** The process of removing waste materials produced in the cells of their body.  ## NUTRITION ### Autotrophic Nutrition * The organism makes its own food from simple inorganic materials. * Examples: Green plants, Autotrophic Bacteria. ### Heterotrophic Nutrition * Organisms that cannot make (or synthesize) its own food from simple inorganic materials. They depend on other organisms for their food. * **Holozoic:** Organisms consume and internally digest complex organic food substances. * Eg: Human Beings, Dog, Cat, Amoeba * **Saprophytic:** organisms feed on dead and decaying organic matter. * Eg: Fungi (Bread moulds, yeast mushroom) * **Parasitic:** Organisms derive nutrition from another living organism (host), often causing harm to the host. * Eg: lice, leech, tapeworm, cascuta (amar-bel) ### PHOTOSYNTHESIS:  The process by which plants make their own food from water and carbon dioxide by using sunlight in the presence of chlorophyll. **Conditions for photosynthesis** * Sunlight * Carbon dioxide * Chlorophyll * Water  $6 CO_2 + 12 H_2 O \xrightarrow[Sunlight]{Chlorophyll} C_6H_{12}O_6 +6H_2 O + 6O_2$  *(Glucose)* **Events during Photosynthesis:** * Absorption of light energy by Chlorophyll * Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen. * Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates Site of Photosynthesis: **Chloroplasts** Chlorophyll is present in green colored organelles called _Chloroplasts_ inside the plant cells. Leaves appear green because they contain chloroplasts. This diagram shows Guard cells with Stomata Pore and Chloroplasts within. Stomata are tiny pores present on the surface of leaves * $H_20 $ absorbed, cell opens - stomata opens * $H_20$ lost, cell shrinks- Stomata closes * $C0_2$ enters through stomata **Water Taken by Roots from Soil Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Magnesium and Iron are also taken from the soil. Nitrogen is taken in the form of nitrates and nitrites.** Food is stored in plants as **Starch.** In animals, food is stored as **Glycogen.** **Experiment involving Variegated Leaf**  1. Boiling water 2. Boiling alcohol - removes color from leaf chlorophyll 3. Iodine solution - show blue-black color with starch **Experiment involving Glass Jars** 1. Glass jar sealed and kept in sun. Green part of leaves have photosynthesis occurring. 2. $KOH$ in jar absorbs $CO_2$ thus no photosynthesis 3. Test for starch by use of Iodine solution Starch is present only in the green sites, thus proving chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis **Conclusion:** Saliva breaks down starch. ***Human Nutrition*** This section discusses Human Nutrition, mentioning: * **Teeth:** crushing/cutting food into small pieces * **Liver:** i.e. emulsification of fat globules * **Pancreas:** digests proteins, carbohydrates and fats with special enzymes lipase, etc. * **Small Intestine:** site of complete digestion of food * **Alimentary canal:** A long tube from mouth to anus * **Salivary Glands:** Secrete saliva Saliva contains Enzyme called Salivary Amylase which breaks down Starch into simple sugar **Oesophagus:** Food travels through the esophagus pipe leading to peristaltic movement by Contraction & Expansion of Esophagus wall thereby pushing food into stomach **Gastric Glands** in the stomach then secrete Hydrochloric acid thereby creating acidic mediun which activates enzyme pepsin. **Pepsin** digests proteins, while **Mucus** protects the stomach from acid. **Large intestine**: Fatty acid glycerol exit of water **Herbivorous** have longer small intestine for digestion of cellulose. **Carnivorous** have shorter small intestine since meat is easier to digest. ### RESPIRATION Respiration- the process of releasing energy from food **Breathing:** Physical process. A process of Inhaling and Exhaling air **Respiration:** Chemical process. The process of breaking down food to produce energy. Energy is released in the form of ATP **Absence of $O_2$ / Alcoholic respiration/fermentation:** **Glucose** $ \rightarrow $ **Ethanol +Carbon dioxide + Energy** **Lack of oxygen / Anaerobic respiration/fermentation** in our muscle cells: **Glucose** $ \rightarrow $ **Pyruvate** $ \rightarrow $ **Lactic acid + Energy** **Precence of oxygen / Aerobic respiration:** **Glucose** $ \rightarrow $ **Carbon dioxide +Water + Energy** **Aerobic Respiration:** * Oxygen is Required * More energy produced * Takes place in cytoplasm and mitochondria * End product is $CO_2 + H_2O$ **Anaerobic Respiration:** * Oxygen Not required * Less energy produced * Takes place only in cytoplasm * Product is $CO_2$ +Ethanol/Lactic acid ### ***Nutrition in Amoeba*** **Holozoic nutrition** (Unicellular organism) 1. Amoeba takes in food by using tempory finger like extensions of the cell surface called **Pseudopodia**. 2. **Food Vacuoles** complex substances turns simpler 3. Absorption of digested food in cytoplasm by diffusion 4. Undigested food on the cell surface and thrown out. Images showing how Amoeba eats and digests material using Pseudopodia and vacuole ### Nutrition in Paramecium: (Unicellular Organism) The cell has a has definite shape (like slipper) Holoziic Nutrition Food is moved to a specific spot by the movement of cilia. An experiment is performed involving Starch and Saliva on a glass slide. * Starch + Saliva shows No color change proving starch is broken down * Starch + Iodine shows Iodine color change since starch present. Shows *Respiratory system In Human* . * **Nostrils:** Air enters the passage * **Nasal Passage:** Have hairs lining passage for filtration of air. Passage lined with mucus To trap dirt and dust for filtration of air  * **Pharynx:** Common passage for food & air * **Larynx:** voice box * **Trachea:** windpipe * **Bronchus:** Connect trachea to each lung  - EACH * **Bronchioles:** Each Bronchi divides in lungs to form large number of smaller tubes * **Alveoli:** are small air sacs where Exchange of $O_2$ & $CO_2$ , Rings of cartilage Presents air passage from collapsing. The *diaphragm* is a large Dome Shaped Muscle separating chest from the abdomen.. **Residual volume:** Amount of air remaining in lungs at all times **Haemoglobin** is a pigment presents in RBCs which functions at carrier of oxygen **Comparison of Inhalation/ Inspiration vs Exhalation/ Expiration** **Inhalation/Inspiration** * Diaphragm contracts/ moves downward and becomes flat  * Chest cavity become larger * Air is sucked in. **Exhalation/Expiration** * Diaphragm relaxes * Diaphragm moves upward and becomes dome-shaped * Chest cavity becomes smaller * Air is pushed out from lungs ### *RESPIRATION IN PLANTS* Exchange of gases occurs through **stomata** **DAYTIME:** Photosynthesis occurs thus producing Oxygen. Respiration produces carbon dioxide, This released $CO_2$ is used for photosynthesis. Net Result: $O_2$ given out **NIGHTTIME:**  No photosynthesis. Respiration takes place and $CO_2$ is emitted ### **Breathing in Fish** Fish take in water through mouth forcing it **$O_2$ Dissolved in water is taken by blood** **Comparison of Terrestrial vs Aquatic Organisms** **Terrestial Organisms:** * uses use oxygen in Atmosphere * Rate of breathing is less **Aquatic Organisms** * Use dissolved water * Rate of breathing is more. ### ***TRANSPORTATION IN HUMANS*** The process of transfer of substances from one part of the body to other parts. * _Circulatory system_ * _Lymphatic system_ The circulatory system consists of the heart, blood and blood vessels **(cArtery =A Away)** **HEART** * The heart is a muscular organ that is as big as our fist. This diagram show how: * Blood enters through Pulmonary vein (oxygenated blood) to Left atrium * Then to Left Ventricle through Aorta and organs via Main Artery * From Body organs the Deoxygenated blood goes to Right Ventricle * Leading to Pulmonary artery through the Right Atrium * Finally lungs, allowing exchange. * Heart is composed of Main vein i.e. the Vena cava * From lungs blood circulated back into the system _Largest Artery is Aorta, Main Vein is Vena cava_ *Septem separaters the hearts different chambers _Ventricals have Thicker walls to witstand blood * **Arteries**- carry oxygenated blood away from heart. * **Veins**- carry Deoxygenated blood to The heart * **Pulmonary Artery** - carries deoxygenated blood. * **Pulmonary Vein** - carries oxygenated blood. **COMPARISION OF THE BLOOD VESSELS** | Feature | Arteries | Veins | Capillaries | | :--------------- | :---------------------------------- | :------------------------------ | :------------------------------------------------------- | | Direction | Carries blood away from the heart | Returns blood to the heart | Transports both oxygenated & deoxygenated blood | | Oxygen Content | Oxygenated | Contains Deoxygenated blood | | | Pressute | High pressure | Low pressure | Moderate pressure | | Wall Thickness | Thick and elastic walls | Thin and less elastic walls | Very thin (one cell thick) | | Valves | Not Present | Present (prevent backflow) | Absent | | Heart Chambers | Numbers | Circulation | Type | | Animal Group | Birds/Aves Mammals | 4 | Complete double Yes| Warm-blooded | | | Amphibians / Reptiles | 3 | Partial double No| Cold-blooded | | | Fishes/ Pisces | 2 | Single No| Cold-blooded | * **Valves** are present in veins to prevent backflow of blood. * Blood passes only once through the heart in - **Single circulation** * Blood flows twice through the heart before completing a full circuit - **Double circulation** ### BLOOD COMPONENTS * _Red Blood Cells (RBCs):_ Contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen. * _White Blood Cells (WBCs):_ Fight infections - produce antibody to kill pathogens * _Platelets:_ promote Clotting of blood * _Plasma:_ Fluid medium, transport Food carbon dioxide, nitrogenous waste. ### TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS *Xylem* & *Phleom* are independent conducting tubes. Transportation Table: | Feature | Xylem | Pholem | | :------------------------ | :----------------------------------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Transport | Water and minerals | Food, amino acids and other subslances | | Direction of flow | Unidirectional (upwards from roots to aerial parts) | Bidirectional (both upward and downward | | Process involved | physical forces such as root pressure transpitational | Active transport, that Requires energy in the form of ATP | | Main Tissues involved | xylem vessels, tracheids | Sieve tubes, companion cells | Plants do not move and have a large proportion of dead cells in many tissues. This ensures low energy needs and hence they use slow transport sustems. **Lymph or Tissue Fluid** Lymph is a part of lymphatic system: * Formed from leaked coinponents of blood (plasma proteins and blood cells) through pores in in walls of capillaries. * Colorless fluid. * Contains less protein than blood. * Carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine. * Drains excess fluid back into the blood. ### ***Transport of water*** **Root Pressure:** \ Roots take, up ions froni the soil. Creates concentration difference. Water froin soil moves into the roots. Constant movement of waterto Root uylem. Water is steadily pushed upwards **Transpiration:** The loss of water in.the form of yapour trom the aerial parts of the plant. _Transpiration helps in Absorption, Upward Movement of of Water-Minerals from-Roots to leaves and Temperature Regulation_ DAY TIME - Major force is Transpirational pull NIGHT TIME - Root Pressure Loss of water by Evaporation ### EXCRETION IN HUMAN BEINGS Removal of harmfil metabolic wastes from the body is called Excretion. The excretory system of human beings includes: * KIDNEY: Removes nitrogenous water such as urea and uric acid are removed from blood  * URETERS: Connects Kidneys to urinary bladder * URINARY BLADDDER: Urine stored until passed * URETHRA - Transports unrine our of body Translocation involves Phleom to translocate food in the: plant and Substrates *are delivered the to the storage organs af roots, fruits & seeds & &to growing organs* Nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. Shows different kidney regions. Glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, Blood carrying system, etc. #### Tubular Structure: * glomerulus - cluster of blood vesseis. * bowman's capsule - cup shaped structure surrounding glomerulus. ### Glomerular filtration: * Nitrogenous wastes, glucose, water, amino acids excessive salts from the blood are filtered and initial filtrate enters Bowman capsule of the nephron. ### Selective Reabsorption: Useful substances like glucose, amino acids, salts and a major amount of water are reabsorbed back by capillaries surrounding nephron. The buildup of lactic Acid in our muscles causing cramps. Figure 5.14 Stucture of a nephron Amount of water reabsorbed depends on: 1) arnour of excess water in body. 2) armount of dissolved waste to be secreted ### ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY (HAEMODIALYSIS) Haemodialysis removes nitrogenous waste products from the blood through dialysis. This is how to the machine works. Tubing made of permeable membrance. no re-absorption involved Dialysing fluid is the same osmotic pressure as blood. Dialysing solution does not contain nitrogenous wastes. A used solution is rich in urea and extra saits ### Excretion in plants: * Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffused. * Excess water transpiratized * Shedding old leaves and bark * Plant waste in cellular vacuoles * Some waste to the surrounding soil. ## ALAKH SIR KE FARREY -- Control & Coordination **Stimuli:** Change to the environment which an organism responds **Response:** Reaction of an organism to a stimulus. Working together of various parts of body to respond to stimuli is called: **Coordination.** This chart demonstrates how animal **Coordination** takes place, dividing into: * **NERVOUS SYSTEM** divided into - **CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM** (brain and spincal chord) - **PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM** (cranial and spinal nerves) * **ENDOCRINE SYSTEM** **NEURON:** * Structural functional unit of nervous system. * Largest cell in the Body. * Carries electrical impulses Diagram and parts of neuron shows the information passing components: * Dendrite * Nucleus * Cellbody  * Axon * Nerve ending **TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSE BETWEEN 2NEURONS** 1. Receptors receive Stimulus  2. Information collected at the end of the Dendritic tip. 3. Chemical Reaction creates an Electrical impulse 4. Impulse travel From Dendrites to Cell body 5. Impulse travels Through the axon 6. Reaches Nerve Endings 7. Release Chemicals at the-synapse Synapse-microscopic functions between two neurons The chart shows Transmission in Prescence of stimulus: * Receptors * Impulses taken by sensory neurons * Reach CNS where relay neurons transfer impulse from. Motor neurons then respond as effectors in glands and muscles by the stimulus. **Types of Neurons** * Sensory Neurons - transmit from Receptor to CNS * Motor Neurons - transmit from CNS to effectors (muscle or gland) * Relay Neurons - connects sensory and motor neurons **Nervous tissue** Made up of network of nerve cells, bundle of neurons- **Receptor:** Cells, tissue or organs that receive the stimulus. **Effector:** Muscles/tissues/glands that act in response to stimulus. | **Recpetor** | Sense organs | Stimuli | | :------------------- | :----------- | :------ | | PHOTO Receptors | Eyes | LIght | | Olfactory Receptors | Nose | Smell | | Gustatory Receptors | Tongue | Taste | | Phono Receptors | Ear | Sound | | Thermoreceptors | Skin | Heat | | Nociceptors | Skin | Pain | Diagram with brain sectioned shows: Forebrain Midbrain Hind brain Spinal coard **REFLEX ACTIONS (Reflex Movement)** * sudden and Quick movement- * Involuntary movement. * Brain no No not involved (directly not involved). * _Reflex actions are controlled by spinal cord._ Types of actions table: | TYPE OF ACTION | DISCRIPTION | EXAMPLE | | :------------- | :---------------------------------------- | :---------------------------------------------- | | VOLUNTARY | CONTROLLED BY MIND | WALKING / WRITING | | INVOLUNTARY | UNCONTROLLED, NO THINKING- BRAIN INVOLVED | BLOOD TRANSFERS | | REFLEX | UNCONTROLLED, NO BRAIN INVOLVED | HAND WITHDRAWAL, SNEEZE | Reflex Arc- Path followed by never Impulse during reflex action **BRAIN -** CNS Brain spinal cord ### Main coordination center of the body ### ***ALAKH SIR KE FARREY*** ### Trophic * ( Trophic Movement - growth depends on growth * response /movement of a plant part in -external stimuli, * direction or stimuli +positive - tropism negative Tropism Types of Phototropism * **Hyorotropism** * **Geotropism** * **Thigmotropism** * **Chemotropism** **Table Showing Plant Trocipism** Non directional no growth * in leaves in a plant * negative photo tropism -in a plant ### **NASTIC MOVEMENT-** Non directional movement in plant in movement to Stimuli Non directional + Stimuli ### *Table showing NASTIC Movement* Shows: * Trophic * Animals * Plants **HORMONES-IN-PLANTS** * auxiliaries * Gibberelies * Cytokiines * Abscisic Acid * Ethylene Graph: Stem Shoot Bending of a plant- Light: - aux. diffuses - in the shoot side and sells grow in away ### *ALACHH Sir ke FARREY* REPRODUCTION: * Reproduction. **Kyus jarori hai . What variations show** **Asexual Production:** Fissions This document describes various types of asexual production that exist in nature.